Black Hole Space
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{\displaystyle G_{\mu \nu }+\Lambda g_{\mu \nu }={8\pi G \over c^{4}}T_{\mu \nu }}
Far away from the black hole, a particle can move in any direction, as illustrated by the set of arrows. It is restricted only by the speed of light.
Closer to the black hole, spacetime starts to deform. There are more paths going towards the black hole than paths moving away. [Note 3]
Inside of the event horizon, all paths bring the particle closer to the center of the black hole. It is no longer possible for the particle to escape.
Messier 87 galaxy – home of the first imaged black hole
The formula for the Bekenstein–Hawking entropy ( S ) of a black hole, which depends on the area of the black hole ( A ). The constants are the speed of light ( c ), the Boltzmann constant ( k ), Newton's constant ( G ), and the reduced Planck constant ( ħ ). In Planck units, this reduces to S = A / 4 .
^ The value of cJ/GM 2 can exceed 1 for objects other than black holes. The largest value known for a neutron star is ≤ 0.4, and commonly used equations of state would limit that value to < 0.7. [82]
^ The (outer) event horizon radius scales as:
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{\displaystyle M+{\sqrt {M^{2}-{(J/M)}^{2}-Q^{2}}}.}
^ The set of possible paths, or more accurately the future light cone containing all possible world lines (in this diagram the light cone is represented by the V-shaped region bounded by arrows representing light ray world lines), is tilted in this way in Eddington–Finkelstein coordinates (the diagram is a "cartoon" version of an Eddington–Finkelstein coordinate diagram), but in other coordinates the light cones are not tilted in this way, for example in Schwarzschild coordinates they simply narrow without tilting as one approaches the event horizon, and in Kruskal–Szekeres coordinates the light cones do not change shape or orientation at all. [85]
^ This is true only for four-dimensional spacetimes. In higher dimensions more complicated horizon topologies like a black ring are possible. [97] [98]
^ In particular, he assumed that all matter satisfies the weak energy condition .
^ Wald 1984 , pp. 299–300
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^ Webster, B. Louise; Murdin, Paul (1972), "Cygnus X-1—a Spectroscopic Binary with a Heavy Companion?", Nature , 235 (5332): 37–38, Bibcode : 1972Natur.235...37W , doi : 10.1038/235037a0 , S2CID 4195462
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^ Gardiner, Aidan (12 April 2018). "When a Black Hole Finally Reveals Itself, It Helps to Have Our Very Own Cosmic Reporter – Astronomers announced Wednesday that they had captured the first image of a black hole. The Times's Dennis Overbye answers readers' questions" . The New York Times . Retrieved 15 April 2019 .
^ Overbye, Dennis (24 March 2021). "The Most Intimate Portrait Yet of a Black Hole - Two years of analyzing the polarized light from a galaxy's giant black hole has given scientists a glimpse at how quasars might arise" . The New York Times . Retrieved 25 March 2021 .
^ Oldham, L. J.; Auger, M. W. (March 2016). "Galaxy structure from multiple tracers – II. M87 from parsec to megaparsec scales". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society . 457 (1): 421–439. arXiv : 1601.01323 . Bibcode : 2016MNRAS.457..421O . doi : 10.1093/mnras/stv2982 . S2CID 119166670 .
^ Overbye, Dennis (10 April 2019). "Black Hole Picture Revealed for the First Time – Astronomers at last have captured an image of the darkest entities in the cosmos – Comments" . The New York Times . Retrieved 10 April 2019 .
^ Landau, Elizabeth (10 April 2019). "Black Hole Image Makes History" . NASA . Retrieved 10 April 2019 .
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^ Jump up to: a b Thorne 1994 , pp. 123–124
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Translation: Antoci, S.; Loinger, A. (1999). "On the gravitational field of a mass point according to Einstein's theory". arXiv : physics/9905030 . and Schwarzschild, K. (1916). "Über das Gravitationsfeld einer Kugel aus inkompressibler Flüssigkeit nach der Einsteinschen Theorie" . Sitzungsberichte der Königlich Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften . 18 : 424–434. Bibcode : 1916skpa.conf..424S .
Translation: Antoci, S. (1999). "On the gravitational field of a sphere of incompressible fluid according to Einstein's theory". arXiv : physics/9912033 .
^ Droste, J. (1917). "On the field of a single centre in Einstein's theory of gravitation, and the motion of a particle in that field" (PDF) . Proceedings Royal Academy Amsterdam . 19 (1): 197–215. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 May 2013 . Retrieved 16 September 2012 .
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^ 't Hooft, G. (2009). "Introduction to the Theory of Black Holes" (PDF) . Institute for Theoretical Physics / Spinoza Institute. pp. 47–48. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 May 2009 . Retrieved 24 June 2010 .
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^ Thorne, Kip S.; Hawking, Stephen (1994). Black Holes and Time Warps: Einstein's Outrageous Legacy . W. W. Norton & Company. pp. 134 –135. ISBN 978-0-393-31276-8 . Retrieved 12 April 2019 . The first conclusion was the Newtonian version of light not escaping; the second was a semi-accurate, relativistic description; and the third was typical Eddingtonian hyperbole ... when a star is as small as the critical circumference, the curvature is strong but not infinite, and space is definitely not wrapped around the star. Eddington may have known this, but his description made a good story, and it captured in a whimsical way the spirit of Schwarzschild's spacetime curvature."
^ Venkataraman, G. (1992). Chandrasekhar and his limit . Universities Press. p. 89. ISBN 978-81-7371-035-3 . Archived from the original on 11 August 2016.
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^ Cho, A. (16 February 2018). "A weight limit emerges for neutron stars". Science . 359 (6377): 724–725. Bibcode : 2018Sci...359..724C . doi : 10.1126/science.359.6377.724 . PMID 29449468 .
^ Margalit, B.; Metzger, B. D. (1 December 2017). "Constraining the Maximum Mass of Neutron Stars from Multi-messenger Observations of GW170817". The Astrophysical Journal . 850 (2): L19. arXiv : 1710.05938 . Bibcode : 2017ApJ...850L..19M . doi : 10.3847/2041-8213/aa991c . S2CID 119342447 .
^ Shibata, M.; Fujibayashi, S.; Hotokezaka, K.; Kiuchi, K.; Kyutoku, K.; Sekiguchi, Y.; Tanaka, M. (22 December 2017). "Modeling GW170817 based on numerical relativity and its implications". Physical Review D . 96 (12): 123012. arXiv : 1710.07579 . Bibcode : 2017PhRvD..96l3012S . doi : 10.1103/PhysRevD.96.123012 . S2CID 119206732 .
^ Ruiz, M.; Shapiro, S. L.; Tsokaros, A. (11 January 2018). "GW170817, general relativistic magnetohydrodynamic simulations, and the neutron star maximum mass" . Physical Review D . 97 (2): 021501. arXiv : 1711.00473 . Bibcode : 2018PhRvD..97b1501R . doi : 10.1103/PhysRevD.97.021501 . PMC 6036631 . PMID 30003183 .
^ Rezzolla, L.; Most, E. R.; Weih, L. R. (9 January 2018). "Using Gravitational-wave Observations and Quasi-universal Relations to Constrain the Maximum Mass of Neutron Stars". Astrophysical Journal . 852 (2): L25. arXiv : 1711.00314 . Bibcode : 2018ApJ...852L..25R . doi : 10.3847/2041-8213/aaa401 . S2CID 119359694 .
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