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You have full access to this open access article. Global demand for seaweed and its products has increased exponentially over the last 25 years. Equally, the continent of Africa and its offshore islands have considerable potential for seaweed production to contribute to world demand. Compared with China and the rest of Asia, Africa lags behind in seaweed production and utilisation. However, for red eucheumatoid seaweeds, Africa is the third-largest producer in the world, producing about , t FW annually. Details are provided for 13 African countries that are currently involved in seaweed farming and harvesting, commercially or experimentally, for export or domestic utilisation. Eucheuma spp. Over species of seaweed have been recorded in Africa, some of which are already successfully cultivated in other parts of the world. The environmental conditions across the continent range from warm, tropical waters to the cooler, nutrient-rich waters of the southwest, enabling the cultivation of seaweeds from the tropical, carrageenan-producing eucheumatoids to temperate kelp species. Seaweed aquaculture production in Africa, led predominantly by women, has improved the livelihoods of its coastal people. Challenges through disease and pest outbreaks, as a result of climate change, and the low prices paid to farmers are highlighted as major constraints on the development of this industry. Through scaling up and expanding current efforts in production and utilisation of seaweeds, Africa has the potential to join China and Southeast Asia as a global leader in producing, processing and consuming a wide variety of seaweeds. African coasts have a considerable diversity of seaweed species with many distinct biogeographical regions, each with their own seaweed-dominated communities in coastal seas Bolton et al. These include temperate regions in both north and south, a wide variety of Mediterranean biota, two significant and distinct tropical regions with extreme diversity on eastern tropical coasts, and globally significant kelp forest ecosystems in the south Bolton et al. Over seaweed species have been recorded in Africa, consisting of more than red, ca. The African continent offers vast offshore, coastal and land resources suitable for seaweed cultivation, particularly in regions which are pollution-free and can offer a market advantage. Many African countries, however, have not exploited this potential to date. The cultivation of seaweeds, though has been shown to enhance livelihoods, provide employment and increase the gross domestic product in many other seaweed-producing nations Valderrama et al. In Africa, seaweed farming varies between countries, from well-established, in the case of Tanzania Msuya et al. Some countries, for example Tanzania and Kenya, recognised the economic potential of seaweed in the s, when it was collected from the wild and exported to Europe Mshigeni ; Msuya et al. Unfortunately, tough competition with Asia and low-quality seaweeds led to the collapse of this industry in the s Mshigeni ; Msuya a ; Msuya et al. There is still some export of dried kelp, however, from South African kelp forests Rothman et al. In Namibia, the importance of seaweed production has been recognised since the s, when seaweeds were harvested during the s and s and used to produce the gel agar Molloy and Bolton ; Molloy and trial farming was done in the s Dawes Several other African countries, recognising the potential of cultivated seaweeds re-initiated production as early as in Tanzania Msuya , ; Msuya and Hurtado , and Mozambique, Madagascar, Kenya and South Africa, amongst others, have developed their industries over the last two decades Wakibia et al. The predominant seaweed species currently farmed around the African coastline are the red seaweeds Eucheuma spp. Gracilaria spp. Global demand, however, for food, bio-materials and nature-based solutions to restore degraded environments and capture CO 2 , involving seaweeds, has risen exponentially in the last 20 years Krause-Jensen et al. The African continent offers vast resources to address these demands. For example, Namibia is at the forefront of developing large-scale, offshore seaweed cultivation development, focusing on the giant kelp, Macrocystis pyrifera , with the eventual aim of producing over 70, t annually by Kelp Blue, -unpublished. The aim of this review paper is to present the current status of African seaweed production including a comparison with the global situation and provide an overview of the seaweed species farmed and collected from the wild, and their valorisation across the continent, whilst highlighting key challenges and providing recommendations on how the growth of a sustainable African seaweed aquaculture industry can be achieved. Africa is a continent of great potential for seaweed farming. The continent encompasses a wide array of climatic zones from the cool northern and southern temperate environments to the warm tropical waters near the equator. The native seaweeds range from dense kelp forests, dominated by Ecklonia maxima and Laminaria pallida in the cool southern waters in Southern Africa, to the carrageenan-producing warm water red algal species, such as Kappaphycus spp. In terms of global production, the African continent ranks in second place for aquatic plant production tonnes , producing , t FW , yet this is only a fraction of the Excluding Asia, Africa has significantly out-performed other continents since , particularly with the production of the carrageen-producing red algae in Zanzibar, Tanzania Fig. Continental aquatic plant production excluding Asia from to FAO In Africa, current aquaculture production in the marine environment is dominated by aquatic plant production, such as the red algae Eucheuma sp. FAO Aquatic plant production in the marine environment, including seaweeds, was first recorded in by the FAO and the production has grown significantly over the last 30 years. The production of marine aquatic plants in Africa is currently concentrated in Zanzibar Tanzania , t FW , followed by Madagascar 53, t and South Africa 16, t in Other countries, however, including Kenya, Morocco, Mozambique, Namibia and Senegal, are all still either currently producing or have previously produced seaweeds in the past few years FAO , Fig. African countries with either current or previously reported marine aquatic plant production — Proportion of seaweed production is shown for FAO With global seaweed production expanding exponentially over the last few decades and growing international demand for this product, particularly from countries with no traditional consumption or use of seaweeds Cottier-Cook et al. Climate change and low gate prices are just a couple of the challenges faced by the industry Cottier-Cook et al. Approximately seaweed species of Rhodophyta, Chlorophyta and Phaeophyceae have been recorded in Tanzania Msuya Amongst these, only a relatively small number of species are used for commercial cultivation, including the red seaweeds Eucheuma spp. Three species of Eucheuma are found growing naturally in Tanzania, E. The cultivation potential of Eucheuma spp. The potential for cultivating Gracilaria spp. The Tanzanian seaweed industry employs about 30, farmers, most of whom are women. The main species farmed are the eucheumatoid species E. Whereas production of E. Seaweed production in Tanzania has increased rapidly since the start of the industry in , particularly in Zanzibar, which is comprised of two islands, Pemba and Unguja. Production increased from t in to the current , t, with a maximum production of , t recorded in Since , however, production of Kappaphycus has declined significantly as a result of disease, such as ice-ice disease syndrome, and epiphyte outbreaks that have been exacerbated by increasing surface seawater temperatures linked to climate change Msuya a ; Msuya and Porter ; Largo et al. Fresh, live Kappaphycus spp. Msuya, Pers. The main lines are then stretched between two wooden pegs, which are secured firmly into the seabed. The lengths of the lines vary depending on the site e. The distance between the seedlings is approximately 20—30 cm. Other techniques have been researched and some piloted, including the floating line system Msuya a ; Valderrama et al. Harvesting typically occurs after a growth period of 45 days and a proportion of the crop is retained for the next growth period i. Other sources of seedlings, however, include the private sector e. Seaweed diseases and pests have become increasingly prominent in the last 10 years threatening the future of the Tanzanian seaweed industry. The occurrence and perseverance of diseases mostly ice-ice disease syndrome and epiphytism from red filamentous algae e. The production of Kappaphycus spp. In the last 5 years, however, even the lower value and hardier E. Seaweed biosecurity policies are lacking in Tanzania and responses to disease and pest outbreaks are not well coordinated and control measures, in most cases, are not practised by farmers Rusekwa et al. However, the government, private sector and other stakeholders have conducted training programmes in recent years, to inform farmers about how to manage their farms, particularly in relation to minimising the risk of pest and disease outbreaks Rusekwa et al. In particular, the introduction of seedlings has been shown to be a high-risk pathway for the transfer of pests and diseases onto the farm Kambey et al. Quarantine measures for these seedlings, however, are lacking in Tanzania and it is possible that some stakeholders may import them into the country without checks Campbell et al. Several studies have shown that without intervention by the government through research and other responsible stakeholders, the future of the Tanzanian seaweed industry could be at stake Msuya and Porter ; Largo et al. Measures to support the sustainable development of this important industry include technological developments for farming and value addition, support to the farmers for marketing their dried seaweeds and associated products, implementation of research results and having a specific seaweed biosecurity policy Campbell et al. This initiative has focused on the production of value-added products, such as cosmetics e. The ZSCI originally began with one group of 21 farmers, which has now grown to over 25 groups with more than members. This member now produces over 50 products, which are sold countrywide Msuya ; Msuya and Hurtado The market for the value-added products is mainly found in tourist-related destinations, exhibitions, trade fairs and, to a smaller extent, individual purchasers Msuya and Hurtado The government of Zanzibar, however, has recognised the added- value of processing the raw materials in the country and is supporting the development of an indigenous seaweed processing industry to produce its own supply of carrageenans for internal use and export. This effort is one of the outcomes from several governmental and ministerial committees that were tasked to advise the government of Zanzibar on how it could advance its seaweed industry. Key recommendations from these committees included that the government should be engaged in seaweed value addition, to raise the seaweed price for farmers and that a processing industry should be established, which would motivate the farmers to increase production, as they were guaranteed a higher price for their crop compared with the price currently offered by the exporters. Mattio et al. Only three seaweeds, Gelidium madagascariense , E. Other species including Portieria hornemannii , Grateloupia sp. This trade became more organised in the mids to the early s, when t of Gelidium madagascariense and t of E. The trade continued until , when it was halted due to inadequate export volumes, leading to a loss of interest by the importing companies. It was also reported that the volume of harvested seaweed declined over time, with only kg FW of seaweed collected annually before to 80 kg after Mollion Cultivation of E. However, as in many other countries cultivating eucheumatoids, Madagascar imported varieties of these two species to boost production. Several commercial strains of K. These strains having originated in Southeast Asia in the s and s and commercial initiatives to date have been concentrated in the northeast and southwest of the country Msuya et al. All of the seaweeds are exported as unprocessed biomass directly to the main processors in America, Europe or Asia Mollion Overall, the export tonnage of Kappaphycus increased from to 17, t FW between and and E. Source: seaweed farming companies, Madagascar; Global Trade Atlas. In the farming regions, the cultivation techniques encompass various off-bottom and long-line systems, with tubular net farming replacing traditional farming ropes, where water turbidity allows tubular nets are unsuitable in turbid water, as sediments get trapped in the nets and prevent optimal seaweed growth, F. Pascal, Pers. Despite disease and pest outbreaks, which led to the almost total collapse of the industry in the late s Msuya et al. Pests, such as epiphytes and diseases causing ice-ice disease syndrome associated with seasonal temperature variations, however, remain the main challenges to production Mollion Production collapsed Fig. Consequently, farming of E. As a result, both the farmers and farming company became discouraged and many have shifted their focus to other activities. In , E. In general, the business model in Madagascar for seaweed farming is company-based, although in some instances there is the inclusion of independent smallholder farmers. This strategy was implemented in and the main objective of this hybrid approach was to ensure environmental, social and economic sustainability of seaweed farming in the area through effective management of production. This approach has led to a gradual increase in production of K. This increase was achieved despite the requirement to closely manage epiphyte outbreaks, which have reoccurred annually since across all areas and led to a temporary drop in production in Fig. Bioclimatic risks and pest and disease outbreaks, though, are being addressed through the close supervision of the phyconomic aspects by the farming company. For example, farming techniques and strategies are site-specific, the type and quantity of farming material are carefully selected and managed, the crop is regularly surveyed for pest and disease, control measures are in place if an outbreak occurs and concerted spatial management plans have been created. In addition, farmers receive training in farming techniques and biosecurity from the private sector. These activities are ensured through formal contracting and incentive mechanisms e. The hybrid model also relies on the promotion of relational governance, through the inclusion of conservation International Non-Governmental Organisations INGOs , Locally Managed Marine Areas LMMAs community organisations, education and research institutes, financial partners and the administration F. Ecosystem-based projects, such as coral farming as restoration and seagrass protection, are also implemented around the seaweed farms, under the assumption that a healthy and diverse ecosystem will lead to improved farm sustainability, including faster growth rates and crops that are less vulnerable to epiphytes, diseases and climate change F. However, this still has to be validated by scientific assessments. Efforts to assess the economic importance of seaweeds in Kenya started in the s. A survey conducted between and showed that Kenya had many potentially important seaweeds in its coastal zone Yarish and Wamukoya These included several phycocolloid-bearing species, including the carrageenophytes Eucheuma spp. Yarish and Wamukoya These assessments also revealed that the major sources of carrageenan in Kenya would be Eucheuma spp. The survey reported that large populations of Eucheuma , Kappaphycus and Hypnea were distributed along the Kenyan coast and recommended their cultivation to increase the crop production for economic purposes Yarish and Wamukoya This study also recommended the development of seaweed farming in the Shimoni area in southern Kenya, owing to the abundance of the commercially important species and the suitability of the substratum and physical conditions e. Other studies on the commercial potential of Kenyan seaweeds studied the lipid composition of five seaweed species, Hypnea musciformis , E. Mwalugha et al. The technical feasibility of farming seaweed was subsequently established by the Kenyan Marine and Fisheries Research Institute in the mids and early s Wakibia et al. The seedlings for the experimental trials for the two farmed species, E. The first commercial farms were established in in Kibuyuni, southern Kenya by 20 farmers after demonstration farms had been successfully established in the same area in late to These demonstration farms provided the seedlings for E. According to Mirera et al. To date, there are active seaweed farmers from 10 villages in Kwale County, southern Kenya, a significant increase from the 90 farmers actively farming in Nyonje et al. Extreme weather conditions, with very high seawater temperatures during the Northeast monsoon season and high rainfall during the Southeast monsoon in —, led to massive die-offs, as a result of significant pathogen outbreaks Nyonje, Pers. The farms are typically characterized by smallholder farmers, who are supported with farming materials and training from the National and County governments, NGOs and investors interested in buying the seaweeds Nyonje, unpubl. The company aims to work with over farmers to ensure commercial viability Nyonje, Pers. The double-loop method of attaching the seedlings to the cultivation lines to optimise production for their export market has been recently introduced by the company and it has technicians training the farmers in this new method Nyonje, Pers. Currently, the farm gate price of the dry seaweed is about 0. The seaweeds are harvested after three spring tides, having grown for about 6 weeks or 45 days Msuya et al. Other cultivation methods, such as the raft method, broadcasting method and net methods, have also been tested; however, the economic feasibility of these methods have not been evaluated, and thus, these have not been scaled for commercial farm trials Kimathi et al. In , an FAO project encouraged seaweed farmers in Kibuyuni to manufacture seaweed soap, with training in the production of seaweed soap, body cream and foods such as jam, juice and salad Msuya unpubl. FAO also trained the farmers on best business management practices, such as agronomy, harvesting, handling and marketing Msuya unpubl. With the growing interest in seaweed farming from a range of stakeholders and with the socio-economic benefits for the local communities having been demonstrated Mirera et al. Subsequently, the government is planning to map the entire Kenyan coastline for suitable sites for seaweed farming and to develop the industry value chain Blue Economy Committee Report, unpubl. The relatively low initial capital investment and rapid returns make the scalability of seaweed farming more feasible than other capital-intensive interventions in the country Blue Economy Committee Report, unpubl. For sustainability, farmers are also being organised into economically viable entities, such as cooperatives and other community-based organisations. The overall long-term strategy for building resilience amongst the farmers is targeted to incorporate the introduction of Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture, for co-culture of seaweed with finfish and sea cucumbers Blue Economy Committee Report, unpubl. Considering the challenges currently experienced at some of the farming sites, research into better agronomy, development of climate tolerant and disease resistant strains for this region and diversification of farmed species are aspects of the strategy that still need urgent attention Blue Economy Committee Report, unpubl. Experimental studies have been undertaken for Gracilaria spp. The prospects for developing a fully fledged seaweed industry in Kenya are, therefore, promising and seaweed presents a potential post-COVID blue recovery opportunity for coastal communities Northrop et al. Mobilisation of communities in suitable sites for cultivation, capacity building and some targeted investment though will be required from both the public and private sector to realize this ambition. Mozambique, as is the case for other coastal Eastern African countries, has a rich diversity of seaweeds and it has one of the longest coastlines in Africa reaching ca. However, studies on available seaweed resources are scarce Carvalho and Bandeira Some of the early recorded work is that of Critchley et al. Equally, another study in the Quirimbas Archipelago, northern Mozambique found taxa comprising of 38 Chlorophyta, 25 Phaeophyceae and 38 Rhodophyta and reported that 27 of them were new records to the country Carvalho and Bandeira Fifty-three species 24 species of Chlorophyta, 18 Phaeophyceae and 12 Rhodophyta species were subsequently reported in Nampula Province, northern Mozambique Massingue and Bandeira In Mozambique, Eucheuma spp. The production in was t FW , and by , this had reduced to t FW. All farming ended by due to inconsistent production and logistical challenges Ribeiro The first reports of seaweed cultivation in Mozambique were during , when Eucheuma spp. Commercial production started in the early s in Pemba, located in the north, and in Nampula by Msuya et al. However, the production significantly declined to by , with only farmers remaining in the industry Msuya and Massinga unpubl. The seaweeds from Mozambique were exported to Asia and Europe. Mozambique seaweeds are cultivated in shallow water areas using the off-bottom peg and line method Msuya et al. No other cultivation methods have been reported in Mozambique. The seaweed industry in Mozambique faces the challenge of low seaweed production resulting in an inability to cope with the needs of buyers for the international markets. This was evidenced by the collapse of the industry in , due to inconsistent quality and an unreliable supply of seaweed to the export market Msuya et al. The situation remains unchanged, but efforts are being made by the government and other stakeholders to revive the industry. The potential for seaweed cultivation in Mozambique was reported in , with 10, ha identified as suitable for seaweed farming Omar unpubl. A feasibility study was also conducted to evaluate the technical and market viability of seaweed production in the Palma District, northern Mozambique Anadarko, unpubl. The study identified nine sites villages that were suitable for farming E. The farming of Gracilaria spp. The government of Mozambique is now promoting the co-culture of seaweeds and bivalves FAO-undated , as a viable opportunity to produce two products in the same area, increase food production and enhance the livelihoods of coastal communities involved in this practice. The coast of Djibouti is rich in seaweeds of various species, but the evaluation of these seaweeds for possible utilisation is limited Fourreh et al. Mshigeni - unpubl. These were defined by the author as potential sources of phycocolloid and could be exploited for economic and livelihood development in Djibouti. Fourreh et al. Sargassum sp. Trials for farming eucheumatoids were first conducted in Moucha Island in the Gulf of Tadjourah, Djibouti, in the late s by Braud and Perez , using seaweed imported from Indonesia. The trials were successful and the authors were keen to start commercial farming, but since they were French nations, they were required to leave Djibouti when the country gained its independence. In , Mshigeni unpubl. Mshigeni unpubl. Covering the period —, the project addressed the ability of coastal fishers, especially women, to reduce vulnerability and, thus, better adapt to the impact of climate change. Despite the reported presence of species of seaweeds in Mauritius and Rodrigues Bolton et al. The Mauritius Research and Innovation Council MRIC , however, established a research programme in to investigate the potential for developing an economically, technically and environmentally viable seaweed industry in Mauritius and Rodrigues. The MRIC, working in collaboration with a multidisciplinary team consisting of a number of Ministries and organisations, evaluated the potential commercial utilisation of six native seaweeds including Ulva kylinii, U. The study found that all six species had the potential for the development of seaweed-based food items, livestock feed supplements, cosmetics and bio-fertilisers MRC unpubl. The research programme by MRIC developed local seaweed cultivation techniques and the technology for the processing of commercial products. Subsequent experimental farms of G. Two seaweed farming techniques were evaluated, the raft method in Mauritius and the off-bottom method in Rodrigues. Seaweed growth rates per day obtained were comparable with other Gracilaria species grown in other countries, ranging from 0. Yields ranged from to kg per m 2 over four months. Preliminary experimental data indicated that the optimal growth season in Mauritius ranged from April to September, whilst in Rodrigues seaweed could be cultured all year round Ravina et al. The Seaweed Team at MRIC also held several training sessions on seaweed farming and basic seaweed identification with members of the coastal communities, mostly fisherfolks in Rodrigues and the southeast region of Mauritius. The funding also enabled a mapping exercise to establish the most suitable sites for seaweed cultivation in Grand Sable. The seeding rate was 0. A total harvest of An average harvest of Mauritius and Rodrigues face frequent typhoons, which makes it difficult to have a year-round sustainable industry. Several attempts to farm seaweeds were affected by typhoons that destroyed the farming devices, such as rafts leading to the loss of the crop K. Narrain, Pers. Equally, the intertidal areas can have high turbidity Msuya a , making it difficult for the smallholder farmers to grow seaweeds in these areas, as efficiently as in other African countries. The lack of wild eucheumatoid seaweeds and the ban on importing seaweeds from other countries CEVA unpubl. The Food and Agricultural Research and Extension Institute in Mauritius and Rodrigues, in collaboration with the seaweed farmers, is also actively developing new seaweed-based food products with high commercial potential from G. It is also conducting consumer acceptability and shelf-life trials, together with providing training workshops in food processing that can be extended to other products, and the nutritional value of seaweeds. In addition, the University of Mauritius has provided training to members of the GSWPFEA on the construction of solar dryers, to enable the drying of the seaweed, the basics of dehydration and the importance of pre-treatment before drying MRIC unpubl. In , a study to assess the nutritional profiling of G. These results indicated that this species had a good potential for value addition activities, such as food products and cosmetics. The cool temperate rocky shore communities are dominated by kelp forests, mainly Ecklonia maxima and Laminaria pallida Bolton and Anderson The coastline is very straight and mostly exposed to ocean swells Rothman et al. The southern coast of South Africa is known as the Agulhas Marine Province, with a different warm temperate biota with high seaweed endemism Anderson et al. Further east, this warm temperate biota overlaps with the tropical marine flora of the Southwestern Indian Ocean, and in the extreme east of South Africa, most species are of tropical affinity Bolton et al. South Africa has a long history of seaweed utilisation from natural stocks, with the most important current uses being harvesting of fresh kelp mostly Ecklonia maxima with some Laminaria pallida for feed in the abalone aquaculture industry and for the production of growth stimulants in agriculture. There is a dwindling collection of kelp beach cast for alginate, as well as a small, sustainable harvest of the intertidal red seaweed Gelidium pristoides for agar Anderson et al. In the past, both countries had large collections of beach cast of Gracilaria , which were dried and shipped overseas for agar production. All material for hydrocolloid production in the region was dried and shipped overseas apart from small operations extracting coarse agar, which were operated for a few years in both South Africa and Namibia Critchley et al. The current use of natural stocks of seaweeds in Namibia is confined to ca. In South Africa, a maximum of ca. There is currently no commercial Gracilaria spp. The current success story of seaweed aquaculture in the region is the production of the green seaweed Ulva spp. Official figures are not obtained from farms by the government, as for other aquaculture products, as the seaweed material is not sold, but almost all used as fresh feed. Bolton et al. Various species names have been used for this Ulva spp. It was formerly known as Ulva armoricana Cyrus et al. Five farms produce significant amounts of Ulva spp. Each paddle raceway produces ca. Most of the farms grow the Ulva spp. Two of the farms use the Ulva spp. Other benefits of this partial water recirculation include warming the water, which increases abalone growth rates on the west coast, which can have significant economic benefits Bolton et al. The integrated aquaculture of Ulva spp. The main threats to this production have been economic i. A crustose brown alga, Myrionema strangulans , growing on the Ulva spp. Bioremediation through the Ulva spp. Several farms are currently increasing their Ulva spp. Following the replacement of Gracilaria spp. A rope-raft system, anchored with ropes using empty soda bottles as floats, was used, which could be extended into 1 and 2 ha units Dawes The Gracilaria spp. As the netlon was pulled taut, the seaweed thalli would become trapped in the meshes: 5 m lengths of netlon were seeded at 0. The strings of netlon containing the seaweed were then ferried by boat to the floating rafts and tied to ropes, where they rested just below the surface. This method is described in detail by Dawes Relative growth rates in winter of ca. A maximum of 10 ha under cultivation was achieved in , but despite holding the rafts in place with 5t concrete blocks and pipe anchors, a major problem was specific conditions of currents in the bay, which resulted in the aquaculture systems becoming tangled and washed ashore. Pulfrich unpubl. Currently, there is no seaweed aquaculture in Namibia. In South Africa, Gracilaria spp. A potential problem in Saldanha Bay involved stratification in late summer, where growth was low in the upper, nutrient-poor layer Anderson et al. This was mitigated in some areas by nutrients derived as waste from a fish plant, although this fish factory is no longer in operation. Similar studies were carried out in a relatively sheltered section of the nearby open coast in St. Helena Bay Wakibia et al. Two different species were tested, Gracilariopsis sp. Gracilariopsis longissima Iyer et al. There were no seasonal nutrient deficiencies, although periodic low-oxygen hydrogen sulphide events known as black tides killed all inshore marine life, including the cultivated seaweeds in and Following these studies, a number of companies expressed interest in seaweed aquaculture at both sites, and at least one carried out commercial trials in Saldanha Bay, but none of these were successful. The lack of policy and legislation was a major drawback in gaining permission for seaweed aquaculture in St Helena Bay. Several land-based abalone farms in South Africa grow small amounts of G. Only one farm grows significant amounts, which total ca. Problems with epiphytes growing on the Gracilaria ectocarpoids and diatoms are solved by their manual removal from the seedling stock. In addition, there have been experimental attempts to grow Gelidium pristoides on the south coast of South Africa Aken et al. Despite the globally significant kelp forests on the west coast of Southern Africa, there has been no commercial aquaculture of kelps Laminariales in the region thus far. Some studies on the growth of the microscopic stages have been completed in the laboratory Bolton and Levitt ; Bolton and Anderson ; Rothman , and both the major kelp species Ecklonia maxima and Laminaria pallida have been grown from spores to large kelp sporophytes in the sea Rothman Ecklonia maxima plants can be very large, as long as 17 m, although most of the length and half of the biomass is stipe. A small experimental study grew this species successfully from regenerating holdfasts on rope rafts in Saldanha Bay Fleischman et al. About species have been reported in Ghana Bolton et al. Ghana, however, faces the problem of volumes of floating seaweeds that are cast on its beaches. These floating seaweed Sargassum spp. A study of Ghanian seaweeds assessed the potential of six red seaweed species in fighting pollution by acting as biological indicators for heavy metals Serfor-Armah et al. Serfor-Armah et al. Until , the Ghanian seaweed industry was primarily based on the harvesting of wild seaweeds from the significant beach cast, primarily Sargassum spp. A collaborative programme between the Technical University of Denmark DTU , the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research CSIR and Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology KNUST in Ghana assessed the potential of using the cast seaweed to generating economic growth, with the aim of establishing a seaweed processing industry and eventually developing a cultivation industry, when appropriate technologies were found Jensen unpubl. The plan being that the cultivated seaweed would predominantly be used to produce value-added products and the by-product would be used in the biorefinery Segbefia et al. Since , the cultivation of Kappaphycus spp. Studies have also assessed the socio-economic significance of seaweed farming in Ghana Agyarko , as a new and opportunistic industry, and highlighted 12 potential areas suitable for farming Segbefia et al. Gbedemah also highlighted additional potentially suitable species for cultivation and wild collection in Ghana including: Sargassum vulgare , Hypnea musciformis and Ulva fasciata. Sargassum spp. This alga can also interfere with navigation activities and can clog fishing nets causing extra work for the fishermen Solarin et al. Efforts have been made to convert Sargassum spp. Ibraheem et al. Solarin et al. In addition, Abowei and Tawari and Fakoya et al. With a coastline of km extending from the border with Benin in the West to Cameroon in the East, Nigeria has potential for seaweed farming. Several authors have recommended the initiation of seaweed farming in Nigeria, using mainly native species, but also imported species where necessary with appropriate farming technologies. Abowei and Tawari argued that with the well-known uses and benefits of the brown seaweeds, it may be useful to import and cultivate the appropriate Phaeophyceae species from other west African countries, such as Ghana, Togo and Cameroon, countries whose ecology is similar to Nigeria, as well as the red seaweed Eucheuma spp. These authors, as well as Fakoya et al , also recommended the use of farming methods, such as rafts. In Senegal, there are over seaweed species reported on its coastal area Ndiaye et al. Efforts to study seaweed resources of Senegal include a study by Ndiaye et al. These efforts were mentioned by McHugh , who stated that there had been interest in harvesting the naturally growing H. According to the author, there was a company that had shown interest in harvesting and processing the H. Seaweed production in Senegal was reported recently Gueye et al. A total of seaweed species were reported in Morocco by , including species of Chlorophyceae Benhissoune et al. Equally, Moussa et al. In a more recent study, Bahammou et al. The authors reported two species that were recorded for the first time in Morocco— Gaillona gallica and Aglaothamnion tripinnatum Of all these species, however, only a few have been exploited for commercial and community economic development. Rhimou et al. Gracilaria multipartita, however, has also been recommended as a good source of agar Noura et al. The seaweed industry in Morocco, located in the northwest, is based predominantly on the extraction of agar from wild populations of Gelidium spp. Kassila et al. The former is reportedly cultivating, harvesting and processing seaweed at a commercial scale at its processing plants situated in Morocco, as well as Ireland and India The Seaweed Company-unpublished online information , whereas the latter states that it supplies and exports red seaweeds Gracilaria spp. The invasive seaweed Sargassum muticum is also harvested and converted to alginate and defined as a potential commercial commodity and source of livelihood in Morocco El Atouani et al. The potential of Moroccan seaweeds for pharmaceutical applications has also been studied by Rhimou et al. Out of these, 10 species including Asparagopsis armata , Ceramium rubrum, Gelidium pulchellum , Gelidium spinulosum , Halopitys incurvus , Hypnea musciformis , Plocamium cartilagineum, Vertebrata thuyoides , Pterosiphonia complanata and Sphaerococcus coronopifolius were identified as potential sources. Equally, Rhimou et al. Potential of polysaccharide-enriched extracts PEEs from 17 seaweeds in Morocco as plant growth stimulators was also reported by Mzibra et al. Owing to the rising demand for agar production, Gracilaria has also been identified for potential cultivation. Plans to develop seaweed cultivation in the country began in , when coastal spatial planning for marine aquaculture site selection was initiated Sanchez-Jerez et al. Initial trials conducted by Kassila et al. Daily growth rates of 1. The authors demonstrated that seaweed farming was possible in Morocco and that it was suitable for small-scale fishermen, who were able and willing to switch from an exclusive dependence on capture fisheries to an intensive involvement in seaweed farming. Benhissoune et al. There have been very few studies, however, to assess their economic potential Yaich et al. Ulva lactuca, collected between Taboulba and Sayada, was identified though as a potential source of dietary fibre, essential amino acids and fatty acids Yaich et al. A mixture of production methods is used in Tunisia. The presence of a seaweed processing plant and plans of expanding seaweed cultivation in Tunisia offer opportunities for the expansion of seaweed production and valorisation in the country. The company produces and markets agar and carrageenan from Gracilaria spp. As is the case with all continents, with the exception of Asia, there is only limited cultivation of seaweeds in Africa, to date. The continent does, however, have one major cultivated seaweed-producing country i. Tanzania , and a number of other countries are cultivating a range of seaweeds at a commercial scale. This makes Africa, as a whole, the second-highest continent, after Asia, for global seaweed aquaculture production FAO Tanzania and Madagascar are amongst the major producers of eucheumatoids in the world. Many of the emerging countries in seaweed production i. Kenya, Mozambique and Namibia have the potential to significantly expand their operations. Others, such as Somalia, recognise the potential of seaweed farming as a community development initiative and are planning a new industry in Puntland State through its NGO Somali Women Action F. A number of other countries have at least experimented in the cultivation of seaweeds or are farming in small quantities. There are also countries in Africa that farm seaweed purely for domestic utilisation, such as Gracilaria spp. In Africa, many countries also have experience in processing seaweed based on harvesting from the wild Tunisia, Senegal and Morocco and selling it commercially Sargassum spp. The effort in Namibia by the company Kelp Blue also aims to use a biorefinery process, to produce a number of products from large amounts of kelp biomass grown offshore for the first time in Africa. In Africa, almost all the major groups of economic seaweeds are cultivated: tropical Eucheuma spp. There is also potential for use of Sargassum in many warmer regions, and species of Porphyra spp. A number of other naturally growing seaweeds have been recommended for commercial exploitation as food or source of income. The tropical species Asparagopsis taxiformis , for example grows on both east and west coasts, and the more temperate species A. This genus has received increasing attention recently, as it can significantly reduce methane emission when fed to ruminant livestock Kinley et al. With this scenario in Africa, there is a high potential to expand the seaweed industry and to make this continent one of the main centres for seaweed cultivation and utilisation worldwide. There is a need for unified efforts e. Coastal African countries are rich in seaweed species and many have suitable areas that can be used for cultivating and processing many types of seaweeds. These countries have the potential to use its rich, natural seaweed biodiversity for economic benefits of their people by harvesting responsibly and sustainably and cultivating native seaweeds, or imported species when necessary, depending on the country and species required, for both food and income generation. Importantly, with evidence-based research to study the wider benefits of seaweeds in African waters, such as the potential for ecosystem restoration, services and carbon capture, seaweeds can be an important new crop for many countries. A number of coastal African countries have recognised the benefits of seaweeds and are putting efforts into responsibly developing their resources, whether it is through wild harvest or cultivation and valorisation. With such rich resources, the efforts done so far to cultivate and process seaweed, Africa could be one of the continents that produces and processes seaweeds in large quantities, on a scale similar to Asia. With careful management and utilisation of its resources including biosecurity efforts to reduce the introduction and spread of pests and diseases e. These aspects call for linkages and collaboration between and amongst countries to look at possibilities of making the farming of seaweeds in Africa a one-continent industry, which benefits all stakeholders. Data is openly available and can be obtained by asking the authors. Google Scholar. Ackah-Baidoo A Fishing in troubled waters: oil production, seaweed and community-level grievances in the Western Region of Ghana. Community Dev J — Article Google Scholar. Agyarko KA Assessing the socio-economic benefits of seaweed production to the rural coastal areas in Ghana. Hydrobiologia — Aquaculture — Int J Agric Biol — Rhodophyta: Gelidiaceae for mariculture: geographical distribution, reproductive phenology and growth of sporelings in culture in relation to light and temperature. S Afr J Mar Sci — J Appl Phycol — Oxford University Press, Oxford pp. Oxford University Press, Oxford pp 1— Divers Distrib — Int J Fish Aquat Stud — Egypt J Aquat Res — Chlorophyceae Wille s l. Bot Mar — Rhodophyceae - Ceramiales. Mar Biol — Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp — In: Decker C, Griffith C, et al. Cape Town. An analysis of intertidal seaweed biogeography on the east coast of South Africa. S Afr J Bot — African J Mar Sci — Its potential role in the future of aquaculture. Perspect Phycol — African J Agric Res — Science Press, Princeton, pp — Reflections on introducing tubular nets to women seaweed farmers in Zanzibar. Gend Technol Dev — Ambio — Article PubMed Google Scholar. Oxford University Press, Oxford pp — Cottier-Cook, EJ, Nagabhatla, N, Asri, A, et al Ensuring the sustainable future of the rapidly expanding global seaweed aquaculture industry — a vision. Dawes CP Suspended cultivation of Gracilaria in the sea. Phycol Res — J Fish Aquat Sci — Accessed May Sustainability in action. FAO, Rome. Sci Rep Int J Curr Pharm Res — Gbedemah TS Intertidal macro-algal diversity and zonation patterns of the eastern and western coasts of Ghana. University of Ghana. Scholars Acad J Biosci — Guiry, M. World-wide electronic publication, National University of Ireland, Galway. Accessed March A review of Kappaphycus farming: Prospects and constraints. In: A. Israel, R. Einav J. Seckbach eds. J Geophys Res Ocean — J Environ Biotechnol Res — J Phycol — Med Fish Aquacult Stud — Anim Prod Sci — Biol Lett Cryptogam Algol — McHugh DJ Prospects for seaweed production in developing countries. Middle East Eye News Accessed October Kenya Ocean Coast Manag Mollion J The seaweed resources of Madagascar. Molloy FJ The seaweed resources of Namibia. Acta Bot Malacitana — Mshigeni KE Exploitation of seaweeds in Tanzania. The genus Eucheuma and other algae. Tanzania Notes and Records — Mshigeni KE Seaweed farming in Tanzania, a success story. Kiangi G eds. Indian Ocean region — notes on collections kept in Berlin-Dahlem and Hamburg. Willdenowia — Development — Msuya FE a Environmental changes and their impact on seaweed farming in Tanzania. World Aquac Msuya FE b The impact of seaweed farming on the social and economic structure of seaweed farming communities in Zanzibar. Tanzania World Aquac Msuya FE a Social and economic dimensions of carrageenan seaweed farming. Social and economic dimensions of carrageenan seaweed farming, Fisheries and Aquaculture Technical Paper No. FAO, Rome pp — Msuya FE b Effects of stocking density and additional nutrients on growth of the commercially farmed seaweeds Eucheuma denticulatum and Kappaphycus alvarezii in Zanzibar Tanzania. Tanzania J Nat Appl Sci — Msuya FE Technological development to help women seaweed farmers cope with the effects of climate change in Zanzibar, Tanzania. World Aquac — Msuya FE Seaweed resources of Tanzania: status, potential species, challenges and development potentials. Eur J Phycol — Msuya FE, Neori A Ulva reticulata and Gracilaria crassa : macroalgae that can biofilter effluent from tidal fishponds in Tanzania. J Food Res Wiley, NY pp — Nobre AM, Robertson-Andersson D, Neori A, Sankar K Ecological-economic assessment of aquaculture options: comparison between abalone monoculture and integrated multi-trophic aquaculture of abalone and seaweeds. Int J Sci Res Publ —6. Odhiambo JO, Wakibia J, Sakwa MM Effects of monitoring and evaluation planning on implementation of poverty alleviation mariculture projects in the coast of Kenya. Mar Policy Oyieke, HA The seaweed resources of Kenya. Seaweed Resources of the World. Japan International Cooperation Agency, Yokosuka, pp. Mar Drugs — Afr J Biotechnol — Ribeiro, F Inventory of small-scale mariculture in Mozambique. Hydrobiologia —— Rothman M The phylogeny, biology and biogeography of the Southern African kelps Ecklonia maxima and Laminaria pallida. Rull Lluch J Marine benthic algae of Namibia. Sci Mar — Aquac Environ Interact — Diversity Int J Appl Geospatial Res — Semesi, AK Studies on industrial polysaccharides from selected Tanzanian marine algae. Water Air Soil Pollut — J Radioanalyt Nuclear Chem — Smetacek V, Zingone A Green and golden seaweed tides on the rise. Nature — Contributions from the Bolus Herbarium The Seaweed Company-unpublished online information. Aquac Econ Manag — Biodivers Conserv — Helena Bay. South Africa J Appl Phycol — Food Chem — Yarish C, Wamukoya G Seaweeds of potential economic importance in Kenya: field survey and future prospects. Download references. Box , Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar. Correspondence to Flower E. Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. Reprints and permissions. Msuya, F. Seaweed farming in Africa: current status and future potential. J Appl Phycol 34 , — Download citation. Received : 16 September Revised : 14 December Accepted : 14 December Published : 01 February Issue Date : April Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:. Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article. Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative. Journal of Applied Phycology Aims and scope Submit manuscript. Download PDF. Abstract Global demand for seaweed and its products has increased exponentially over the last 25 years. An overview on agarophyte trade in India and need for policy interventions Article 24 April Use our pre-submission checklist Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript. Introduction African coasts have a considerable diversity of seaweed species with many distinct biogeographical regions, each with their own seaweed-dominated communities in coastal seas Bolton et al. Global status of seaweed cultivation in Africa Status of seaweed cultivation in Africa Africa is a continent of great potential for seaweed farming. Full size image. Seaweed farming in Africa Eastern Africa Tanzania Species richness and diversity Approximately seaweed species of Rhodophyta, Chlorophyta and Phaeophyceae have been recorded in Tanzania Msuya Production volumes and prices The Tanzanian seaweed industry employs about 30, farmers, most of whom are women. Challenges to sustainable seaweed production in Tanzania Seaweed diseases and pests have become increasingly prominent in the last 10 years threatening the future of the Tanzanian seaweed industry. Exportation of aquaculture-produced seaweed DW from Madagascar, — African seaweed industry As is the case with all continents, with the exception of Asia, there is only limited cultivation of seaweeds in Africa, to date. Conclusion Coastal African countries are rich in seaweed species and many have suitable areas that can be used for cultivating and processing many types of seaweeds. World Aquac Google Scholar Msuya FE b The impact of seaweed farming on the social and economic structure of seaweed farming communities in Zanzibar. FAO, Rome pp — Msuya FE b Effects of stocking density and additional nutrients on growth of the commercially farmed seaweeds Eucheuma denticulatum and Kappaphycus alvarezii in Zanzibar Tanzania. Hydrobiologia —— Article Google Scholar Download references. Cottier-Cook Authors Flower E. Msuya View author publications. View author publications. About this article. Cite this article Msuya, F. Copy to clipboard. Search Search by keyword or author Search. Navigation Find a journal Publish with us Track your research.

Seaweed farming in Africa: current status and future potential

Bizerte buying weed

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