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Jewish women in the Holocaust refers to women who were Jewish and imprisoned in Europe in Nazi concentration camps or who were in hiding to prevent capture by the Nazis during the Holocaust between 1933 and 1945. Of the estimated six million Jews who were killed[1] during the Holocaust, two million were women.[2] Jewish women were sexually harassed, raped, verbally abused, beaten, were victims of Nazi human experimentations and were brutally murdered.[3] Jewish women also played a specific role in resistance methods against Nazi persecution, evident through their efforts in the partisans, even with continued gender-specific problems.[4]
Scholars have argued that women demonstrated more nurturing interpersonal behavior in concentration camps than their male counterparts, generating increased emotional resiliency. However, others have noted that men also created social support networks in the camps.
The more social women were with each other, the higher chance they had for survival.[5]:379 An interview conducted with a Holocaust survivor named Rose described the bonds the women formed:
...[women were] picking each other like monkeys [for lice]…. Never remember seeing the men do it. The minute they had lice they just left it alone; the women have a different instinct. Housewives. We want to clean…. Somehow the men,… the [lice] ate them alive… [During roll call] the women holding each other and keeping each other warm…. Someone puts their arm around and you remember…. Can you imagine how much it meant to us over there? Men were crouching into themselves- maybe five feet apart [Rose demonstrated how the men she saw put their arms around their own bodies, rather than around the next person for warmth]…. I think more women survived…. As much as I saw in Auschwitz, the men were falling like flies. The woman was somehow stronger…. Woman friendship is different than man friendship you see…. We have these motherly instincts, friend instincts more…the men, no…the men didn’t do that. Men were friends there too. They talked to each other but they didn’t, wouldn’t sell their bread for an apple for the other guy. They wouldn’t sacrifice anything. See, that was the difference.[5]:380
Being Jewish and female during the Holocaust doubled one's vulnerabilities.[6]:80 Women's reproductive abilities were negatively impacted as a result of the genocidal conditions. For example, several women Holocaust survivors noted in their memoirs that they developed amenorrhea which would ultimately reduce their chances of ever having children.[6]:82 One of the major disadvantages, which coincided with Jewish women's vulnerabilities during the Holocaust, was the likelihood of rape.[7] Women were sometimes raped right before being murdered.[6]:83 One SS officer was reported to have, "had the custom of standing at the doorway… and feeling the private parts of the young women entering the gas bunker. There were also instances of SS men of all ranks pushing their fingers into the sexual organs of pretty young women."[6]:84[8]
Despite strict racial laws and military regulations restricting the interaction between Jews and non-Jews, SS soldiers and police units would rape Jewish women frequently. In fact, it was so prevalent that it was reported that "50-80% of the SS troops and police units that operated in Eastern Europe were guilty of the sexual assault of Jewish women."[9] These soldiers and police officers not only did this for their own sexual pleasure but also to exert their dominance over the Jewish women and dehumanize them. The Jewish people during the Holocaust were perceived as incapable of human emotion. As a result, many women were raped and then killed in front of their husbands and families. The SS soldiers and police units would kill the women almost immediately after raping them to avoid any possibility of the birth of a half-Jewish baby. In the early 20th century, if a German person had sexual relations with a Jew it was considered Rassenschande (racial defilement) and was punishable by jail or death. These acts of rape sometimes also occurred at SS unit parties where drunk soldiers went from woman to woman, taking turns raping all of them until the women were laying bleeding on the floor. Because the officers and soldiers were usually male, some surmise that Jewish men during the Holocaust didn't face the same risk of rape as women did,[9] but it is notable that sexual abuse of men and boys was not uncommon.[10]
Childbirth was also disadvantageous to women's survival while they were in the concentration camps, affecting them physically and emotionally. Once labor was over and the baby was born, the women were vulnerable to being killed along with their newborn. One memoir describes some of the sadistic acts performed among those who were pregnant: "SS men and women amuse themselves by beating pregnant women with clubs and whips, [being] torn by dogs, dragged around by the hair and kicked in the stomach with heavy German boots. Then when [the pregnant Jewish women] collapsed, they were thrown into the crematory – alive."[6]:86 :376
It had been noted that major disparities between mother and father figures were caused by the gender roles of Jewish men and women imprisoned during the Holocaust.[11]:155 Women often described their experiences in the Holocaust in maternal ways.[11]:156 The women commonly referred to themselves as surrogate mothers.[11]:158 Women were able to use their nurturing and domestic nature to describe their experiences in the camps. To them, being a woman in the Holocaust meant that they were every type of woman. They considered themselves as a sister, a mother, a daughter, etc.[11]:175 Motherhood represented their gender as a woman, therefore, they were constantly worried and looking out for their children. One female survivor said, "We were so afraid for our children. We wouldn’t let our children out of our sight when they were going down to play or something."[11]:174
Jewish women faced distinct challenges and played a unique role through their involvement in the Jewish partisan movement, a resistance movement to Nazi Germany throughout Nazi-occupied Europe in World War Two. These Jewish women escaped from Jewish ghettos throughout the occupied territory to join the partisans in the forest to escape Nazi persecution and enhance their chances of survival.[12] Many women were successful in their endeavors to join partisan units, specifically in the Bielski detachment.[12] It has been recorded that the Bielski detachment maintained the highest amount of female partisans, with approximately 364 of the 1,018 members being women.[12] However, it is evident through these figures that partisan units were largely male dominated, with engagement in military activities designated as the role for men. Due to this reason, it has been noted that when women fled Nazi persecution to reach these units, they were generally doing so "because they were looking for a rescue, not because they were fighting the enemy."[12]
The social cohesion of these partisan units in some circumstances reflected larger societal attitudes, including gendered stereotypes and expectations, and the roles relegated to female members within were influenced by these factors. Subsequently, women who joined the partisans were generally "excluded from combat duty and from leadership positions"[4] and were as well confronted with gender-specific vulnerabilities. Research has revealed that many women were aware before entering the forest that they would face a series of challenges based upon their gender and that "the possibility of rape or murder was real."[13] Upon acceptance into the partisans women were often pressured into relationships with men within these units, and in some circumstances either willingly or unwillingly resorted to the comfort of a man due to the protection he could afford.[13] Importantly, under many circumstances women were not subject to discrimination and were regarded as assets that could provide valuable contributions to the partisan units. Specifically in the Bielski detachment women played a pivotal role in the running of the camp, seen through their ability to provide food to members, and to provide aid to injured or ill partisans through their work as nurses or members of the medical staff.[12]
Both men and women were a part of the resistance but women are often overlooked when discussing resistance roles. Women played key roles in resistance operations. In groups, women would be used to attract the attention of Nazis in order to lure them into an ambush or assassinate them personally. Some women would also work individually to support the resistance. Freddie Oversteegen was 14 when she joined the Dutch resistance group and her older sister was 16. While members of the resistance group, the sisters meet Hannie Schaft and the three would work as a small team to kill Nazi soldiers. The young age of these girls allowed them to evade suspicion and exploit weaknesses in Nazi security for a tactical advantage. The trio primarily lured enemy soldiers into ambushes staged by older members of their Partisan cell.[14] Niuta Teitelbaum was a 24-year-old Jewish woman nicknamed “Little Wanda with the braids”. Teitlbaum, a graduate of Warsaw University, was a high-value target for the Gestapo. Teitlbaum would dress as a Polish farm girl and would attempt to entice Nazi soldiers into a secluded location. Once the Nazi had lowered his guard, Teitlbaum would kill them with a pistol. In one instance, Teitelbaum shot and killed two Nazis while injuring a third. Dissatisfied, she followed the wounded Nazi to a field hospital, entered the hospital disguised in a physician's coat, and killed both the Nazi and police officer that was treating the man that she injured.[15]
Many women believed that labor camps were an opportunity to work for their freedom from the ghettos, but other women were caught while trying to escape from the control of Hitler and his army. However, the reality of the camps was much more brutal than the popular understanding of them. Rena Kornreich Gelissen reminds herself saying “We are young…we will work hard and be set free” (Gelissen and Macadam pg. 55). Gelissen, who went into a labor camp willingly, unaware of their actual nature said this was her original conception of a labor camp. It was inside the labor camps that the reality became apparent. The women were stripped of their clothes, belongings and their hair. “They shear our heads, arms; even our pubic hair is discarded just as quickly and cruelly as the rest of the hair on our bodies” (Gelissen and Macadam pg. 58).
The main goal of the Holocaust was to eliminate the Jews. However, the Nazi regime maintained a high population of Jewish workers in the labor camps. To facilitate the Nazi goal of Jewish genocide, the labor camps conducted "Selections". Selections were held at random. Women were lined up to be killed or spared, largely at random. Gelissen said “Selections are sporadic. There is no telling how often they occur…” she also goes on to say “There is usually one SS man who stands in judgement while the rest of them watch, and sometimes there are two SS man, both must give you the thumb toward life” (Gelissen and Macadam pg. 133).
According to Gelissen, “if the war is going well for the Germans, once in a while [they] get a slice of meat in [their] soup or with [their] bread” (Gelissen and Macadam pg. 136). She says, “we lick our open palms slowly, savoring the smear of margarine or mustard” (Gelissen and Macadam pg. 136). Apart from these small portions daily, they get morning tea, soup for lunch, and bread for dinner. These are not delicacies, but most of the time just water and less of what it actually is supposed to be. There are always hungry and wanting more. I don’t know which to long for more – food or freedom” (Gelissen and Macadam pg. 137).
Work in the labor camps was intense due to harsh weather conditions and constant supervision by the SS. Prisoners often conducted manual labor in full sun, "when it was hot on [their] heads” (Gelissen and Macadam pg. 154). Gelissen did many different jobs while she was in these labor camps. She said the amount physical pain was incomparable to anything she has experienced. “We are working on the new blocks, digging sand out of a deep hole and sifting it through the mesh nets,” however Rena had done this work before and she says “Our hands are hard. They no longer bleed from the long hours of work…” (Gelissen and Macadam pg. 141).
^ "Holocaust Timeline: Statistics of the Holocaust". The History Place. Retrieved 30 April 2014.
^ Hedgepeth, Sonja (2010). Sexual Violence against Jewish Women during the Holocaust. Lebanon: University Press of New England. p. 16. ISBN 978-1584659044.
^ United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. "Women During the Holocaust". Retrieved 29 April 2014.
^ a b Tec, Nechama (January 1996). "Women in the Forest". Contemporary Jewry. 17: 34–47. doi:10.1007/BF02965404. S2CID 145091754.
^ a b Ringelheim, Joan (1998). Different Voices: Women and the Holocaust. Paragon House. ISBN 978-1557785046.
^ a b c d e Goldenberg, Myrna (November 1996). "Lessons learned from Gentle Heroism: Women's Holocaust Narratives". The Holocaust: Remembering for the Future. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. 548: 78–93. JSTOR 1048544.
^ Sinnreich, Helene (2008). "'And it was something we didn't talk about': Rape of Jewish Women during the Holocaust". Holocaust Studies. 14 (2): 1–22. doi:10.1080/17504902.2008.11087214. ISSN 1750-4902. S2CID 162601966.
^ Sinnreich, Helene (2008). "'And it was something we didn't talk about': Rape of Jewish Women during the Holocaust". Holocaust Studies. 14 (2): 1–22. doi:10.1080/17504902.2008.11087214. ISSN 1750-4902. S2CID 162601966.
^ a b Katz, Steven (2012). Modern Judaism, Volume 32, Number 3. Oxford University Press. pp. 293–322.
^ Glowacka, Dorota (2020). "Sexual Violence against Men and Boys during the Holocaust: A Genealogy of (Not-So-Silent) Silence". German History. 39: 78–99. doi:10.1093/gerhis/ghaa032.
^ a b c d e Feinstein, Margaret Myers (Spring 2007). "Absent Fathers, Present Mothers: Images of Parenthood in Holocaust Survivor Narratives". Jewish Women in the Economy. Nashim: A Journal of Jewish Women's Studies and Gender Issues. 13.
^ a b c d e Vershitskaya, Tamara (Fall 2011). "Jewish Women in the Partisans in Belarus". Journal of Ecumenical Studies. 46 (4): 567–572.
^ a b Tec, Nechama (2003). Resilience and Courage: Women, Men and the Holocaust. Yale University Press.
^ Little, Becky. "This Teenager Killed Nazis With Her Sister During WWII". History. Retrieved 12 May 2021.
^ Batalion, Judy (18 March 2021). "The Nazi-Fighting Women of the Jewish Resistance". The New York Times. Retrieved 12 May 2021.
^ Gelissen, Rena Kornreich, and Heather Dune Macadam. 2015. Rena’s Promise. Boston, MA: Beacon Press.
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By Paul Harris for the Daily Mail 22:38 BST 17 Oct 2012 , updated 07:41 BST 19 Oct 2012
She has such natural beauty, she could pass for a movie star.
She smiles, her demeanour relaxed. In normal times, this young woman would surely have enjoyed a bright and happy future, perhaps with a husband, children, grandchildren.
But soon after this photograph was taken, she would face almost certain death. The haunting image is one of a series depicting Jews in Nazi-occupied Poland before they were rounded up to be sent to the gas chambers.
The clue is the curled-up piece of yellow cloth the unknown woman wears on her lapel – a makeshift Star of David.
All around her, and in other photos taken in the ghetto into which the Nazis corralled their prisoners, every man, woman and child was forced to wear one.
In peacetime, the six-pointed star was a proud symbol of Judaism. In the Holocaust which Hitler was about to unleash – here in the devastated town of Kutno – it would become their death-star.
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The remarkable colour images were taken by the Führer’s personal photographer, a loyal follower given unprecedented access to the Third Reich’s elite. Hugo Jaeger was allowed to travel with Hitler to record his appearances at rallies, intimate parties and in private moments. More usually he dedicated himself to lionising his leader and what the Nazis regarded as their most triumphant moments.
Here, it appears, he seems simply to have been fascinated by faces from a different faith in a country under siege. He is said not to have shared Hitler’s unqualified hatred of Jews. Hence, whether he intended it or not, Jaeger’s camera captured an atmosphere rarely seen before horror and carnage overtook it.
After so many years, it is impossible to know for certain why so many people in the photographs are smiling. None appears to have been forced to pose, none seems to display any fear.
The trilby-hatted man in the coat with a fur collar, for example, seems quite comfortable in the company of German officers. Children in the squalor of a tented village appear unperturbed by the photographer. Yet Kutno, 75 miles west of Warsaw, had been bombarded and turned into a ghetto soon after Hitler’s invasion in September 1939.
Its sugar factory would be surrounded by barbed wire and used to imprison 8,000 Jews, crammed into appalling conditions.
Some would die of infection or starvation. Others would not live through the bitter cold of the winter.
The ghetto existed until 1942, when most of its surviving inhabitants were sent to death camps.
It is highly unlikely any of the people in these images survived. Incredibly, the photographs did.
The Kutno ghetto was ‘liquidated’ as part of the Final Solution in the spring of 1942. In 1945, as the Allies advanced into Germany, Jaeger knew he would be arrested and tried as a war criminal if he was caught with so many intimate photos of the defeated Führer.
So after secreting them, initially in a leather suitcase, he buried them in airtight glass jars outside Munich, returning from time to time to check they were safe.
Two decades after the war ended, he sold them to Life magazine.
Now the pictures have gone online at Life.com. Despite attempts to identify some of the subjects, no record was ever found of the smiling young woman.
Historians said it would be astonishing if she had survived. At least the camera immortalised her.
The photos have been released to m
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