Arabic Latin Alphabet
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Arabic Latin Alphabet
Arabic transliteration
(Latin script)
To type directly with the computer keyboard:
The characters ṯ ẖ ḏ š ġ are also transliterated th, kh, dh, sh, gh
The characters ǧ ẖ are also transliterated j, x
The character ḫ corresponds to ẖ (used in Germanic countries): Type h===
→ Arabic language : dictionary, grammar, literature
The Latin Arabic (Arabic: العربية
اللاتينية, Latin Arabic:
L'Ɛarabijjatu l'Látienijjah) is an adaptation of Roman
alphabet for transcribing Arabic devised by Mohammad Shakeb Baig.
Its orthography preserves Arabic word boundaries.
Apart from these letters, hamza (glottal stop) is transcribed by a diereses
above or below vowels as shown below:
The dieresis is omitted if a word starts with [ʔ].
A word has definite article if it is spelled in one of the following ways:
Such words are pronounced by following rules:
The letter is used in native Arabic words for these purposes:
The rules of capitalization of English language are followed. Words with inherent definite article are capitalized as follows:
In this table, Latin Arabic letters and their pronunciations are given. Pronunciations in first line are that of Classical Arabic. Second line shows all the alternative pronunciations of these letters found in local dialects of Arabic.
These rules are governed by the letter which follows . If it is last letter of a word then first letter of next word is used.
وَمِنْ ءَايَـٰتِهِۦ خَلْقُ ٱلسَّمَـٰوَٰتِ وَٱلْأَرْضِ وَٱخْتِلَـٰفُ أَلْسِنَتِكُمْ وَأَلْوَٰنِكُمْ ۚ إِنَّ فِى ذَٰلِكَ لَـَٔايَـٰتٍ لِّلْعَـٰلِمِينَ ﴿٢٢﴾
And among His Signs
Is the creation of the heavens
And the earth, and the variations
In your languages
And your colours: verily
In that are Signs
For those who know.
يولد جميع الناس أحراراً متساوين في الكرامة و الحقوق. و قد وهبوا عقلاً و ضميراً و عليهم ان يعامل بعضهم بعضاً بروح الإخاء.
المادة الأولانية البني أدمين كلهم مولودين حرين ومتساويين في الكرامة والحقوق. إتوهبلهم العقل والضمير، والمفروض يعاملوا بعض بروح الأخوية.
All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with
reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
(Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights)
Adapated scripts by Mohammad Shakeb Baig
Arabic Greek ,
Greek Arabic ,
Latin Arabic ,
Roman Rekhta
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Alphabet used to write the Latin language
This article is about the alphabet used to write the Latin language. For modern alphabets derived from it used in other languages and applications, see Latin script and Latin-script alphabet .
12 sovereign states and 1 supranational organization
Numerous Latin alphabets ; also more divergent derivations such as Osage
This section needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. ( July 2018 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message )
^ Michael C. Howard (2012), Transnationalism in Ancient and Medieval Societies. p. 23 .
^ Cappelli, Adriano (1990). Dizionario di Abbreviature Latine ed Italiane . Milano: Editore Ulrico Hoepli. ISBN 88-203-1100-3 .
^ Liberman, Anatoly (7 August 2013). "Alphabet soup, part 2: H and Y" . Oxford Etymologist . Oxford University Press . Retrieved 3 October 2013 .
^ Crystal, David (4 August 2003). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language . Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521530330 – via Google Books.
^ Kazakh language to be converted to Latin alphabet – MCS RK . Inform.kz (30 January 2015). Retrieved on 28 September 2015.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Latin alphabet .
Ch
Dž
Dz
Gh
Ij
Lj
Ll
Ly
Nh
Nj
Ny
Qu
Sh
Sz
Th
Ts
Estonian
Faroese
Icelandic
Northern Sami
Scandinavian
Danish
Finnish
Greenlandic
Norwegian
Swedish
Adlam (slight influence from Arabic) 1989 CE
The Latin alphabet or Roman alphabet is the collection of letters originally used by the ancient Romans to write the Latin language and its extensions used to write modern languages.
The term Latin alphabet may refer to either the alphabet used to write Latin (as described in this article) or other alphabets based on the Latin script , which is the basic set of letters common to the various alphabets descended from the classical Latin alphabet, such as the English alphabet . These Latin-script alphabets may discard letters, like the Rotokas alphabet , or add new letters, like the Danish and Norwegian alphabets. Letter shapes have evolved over the centuries, including the development in Medieval Latin of lower-case , forms which did not exist in the Classical period alphabet.
The Latin alphabet evolved from the visually similar Etruscan alphabet , which evolved from the Cumaean Greek version of the Greek alphabet , which was itself descended from the Phoenician alphabet , which in turn derived from Egyptian hieroglyphics . [1] The Etruscans ruled early Rome ; their alphabet evolved in Rome over successive centuries to produce the Latin alphabet.
During the Middle Ages , the Latin alphabet was used (sometimes with modifications) for writing Romance languages , which are direct descendants of Latin , as well as Celtic , Germanic , Baltic and some Slavic languages . With the age of colonialism and Christian evangelism , the Latin script spread beyond Europe , coming into use for writing indigenous American , Australian , Austronesian , Austroasiatic and African languages . More recently, linguists have also tended to prefer the Latin script or the International Phonetic Alphabet (itself largely based on the Latin script) when transcribing or creating written standards for non-European languages, such as the African reference alphabet .
Although Latin did not use diacritical signs, signs of truncation of words, often placed above the truncated word or at the end of it, were very common. Furthermore, abbreviations or smaller overlapping letters were often used. This was due to the fact that if the text was engraved on the stone, the number of letters to be written was reduced, while if it was written on paper or parchment, it saved precious space. This habit continued even in the Middle Ages. Hundreds of symbols and abbreviations exist, varying from century to century. [2]
It is generally believed that the Latin alphabet used by the Romans was derived from the Old Italic alphabet used by the Etruscans . [ citation needed ]
That alphabet was derived from the Euboean alphabet used by the Cumae , which in turn was derived from the Phoenician alphabet . [ citation needed ]
Latin included 21 different characters. The letter ⟨C⟩ was the western form of the Greek gamma , but it was used for the sounds /ɡ/ and /k/ alike, possibly under the influence of Etruscan , which might have lacked any voiced plosives . Later, probably during the 3rd century BC, the letter ⟨Z⟩ – unneeded to write Latin properly – was replaced with the new letter ⟨G⟩, a ⟨C⟩ modified with a small vertical stroke, which took its place in the alphabet. From then on, ⟨G⟩ represented the voiced plosive /ɡ/ , while ⟨C⟩ was generally reserved for the voiceless plosive /k/ . The letter ⟨K⟩ was used only rarely, in a small number of words such as Kalendae , often interchangeably with ⟨C⟩.
After the Roman conquest of Greece in the 1st century BC, Latin adopted the Greek letters ⟨Y⟩ and ⟨Z⟩ (or readopted, in the latter case) to write Greek loanwords, placing them at the end of the alphabet. An attempt by the emperor Claudius to introduce three additional letters did not last. Thus it was during the classical Latin period that the Latin alphabet contained 23 letters:
The Latin names of some of these letters are disputed; for example, ⟨H⟩ may have been called [ˈaha] or [ˈaka] . [3] In general the Romans did not use the traditional ( Semitic -derived) names as in Greek: the names of the plosives were formed by adding /eː/ to their sound (except for ⟨K⟩ and ⟨Q⟩, which needed different vowels to be distinguished from ⟨C⟩) and the names of the continuants consisted either of the bare sound, or the sound preceded by /e/ .
The letter ⟨Y⟩ when introduced was probably called "hy" /hyː/ as in Greek, the name upsilon not being in use yet, but this was changed to i Graeca ("Greek i") as Latin speakers had difficulty distinguishing its foreign sound /y/ from /i/ . ⟨Z⟩ was given its Greek name, zeta . This scheme has continued to be used by most modern European languages that have adopted the Latin alphabet. For the Latin sounds represented by the various letters see Latin spelling and pronunciation ; for the names of the letters in English see English alphabet .
Diacritics were not regularly used, but they did occur sometimes, the most common being the apex used to mark long vowels , which had previously sometimes been written doubled. However, in place of taking an apex, the letter i was written taller : ⟨ á é ꟾ ó v́ ⟩. For example, what is today transcribed Lūciī a fīliī was written ⟨ lv́ciꟾ·a·fꟾliꟾ ⟩ in the inscription depicted.
Some letters have more than one form in epigraphy .
Latinists have treated some of them especially such as ⟨ Ꟶ ⟩, a variant of ⟨H⟩ found in Roman Gaul .
The primary mark of punctuation was the interpunct , which was used as a word divider , though it fell out of use after 200 AD.
Old Roman cursive script, also called majuscule cursive and capitalis cursive, was the everyday form of handwriting used for writing letters, by merchants writing business accounts, by schoolchildren learning the Latin alphabet, and even emperors issuing commands. A more formal style of writing was based on Roman square capitals , but cursive was used for quicker, informal writing. It was most commonly used from about the 1st century BC to the 3rd century, but it probably existed earlier than that. It led to Uncial , a majuscule script commonly used from the 3rd to 8th centuries AD by Latin and Greek scribes.
Tironian notes were a shorthand system consisting of thousands of signs.
New Roman cursive script, also known as minuscule cursive, was in use from the 3rd century to the 7th century, and uses letter forms that are more recognizable to modern eyes; ⟨a⟩, ⟨b⟩, ⟨d⟩, and ⟨e⟩ had taken a more familiar shape, and the other letters were proportionate to each other. This script evolved into a variety of regional medieval scripts (for example, the Merovingian , Visigothic and Benevantan scripts), to be later supplanted by the Carolingian minuscule .
It was not until the Middle Ages that the letter ⟨ W ⟩ (originally a ligature of two ⟨ V ⟩s) was added to the Latin alphabet, to represent sounds from the Germanic languages which did not exist in medieval Latin, and only after the Renaissance did the convention of treating ⟨ I ⟩ and ⟨ U ⟩ as vowels , and ⟨ J ⟩ and ⟨ V ⟩ as consonants , become established. Prior to that, the former had been merely allographs of the latter. [ citation needed ]
With the fragmentation of political power, the style of writing changed and varied greatly throughout the Middle Ages, even after the invention of the printing press . Early deviations from the classical forms were the uncial script , a development of the Old Roman cursive , and various so-called minuscule scripts that developed from New Roman cursive , of which the insular script developed by Irish literati and derivations of this, such as Carolingian minuscule were the most influential, introducing the lower case forms of the letters, as well as other writing conventions that have since become standard.
The languages that use the Latin script generally use capital letters to begin paragraphs and sentences and proper nouns . The rules for capitalization have changed over time, and different languages have varied in their rules for capitalization. Old English , for example, was rarely written with even proper nouns capitalized, whereas Modern English writers and printers of the 17th and 18th century frequently capitalized most and sometimes all nouns, [4] which is still systematically done in Modern German , e.g. in the preamble and all of the United States Constitution : We the People of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect Union, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquility, provide for the common defence, promote the general Welfare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America.
The Latin alphabet spread, along with the Latin language , from the Italian Peninsula to the lands surrounding the Mediterranean Sea with the expansion of the Roman Empire . The eastern half of the Empire , including Greece , Anatolia , the Levant , and Egypt , continued to use Greek as a lingua franca , but Latin was widely spoken in the western half , and as the western Romance languages evolved out of Latin, they continued to use and adapt the Latin alphabet.
With the spread of Western Christianity during the Middle Ages , the script was gradually adopted by the peoples of northern Europe who spoke Celtic languages (displacing the Ogham alphabet) or Germanic languages (displacing earlier Runic alphabets ), Baltic languages , as well as by the speakers of several Uralic languages , most notably Hungarian , Finnish and Estonian . The Latin alphabet came into use for writing the West Slavic languages and several South Slavic languages , as the people who spoke them adopted Roman Catholicism .
Later, it was adopted by non-Catholic countries. Romanian , most of whose speakers are Orthodox , was the first major language to switch from Cyrillic to Latin script, doing so in the 19th century, although Moldova only did so after the Soviet collapse .
It has also been increasingly adopted by Turkic-speaking countries, beginning with Turkey in the 1920s. After the Soviet collapse, Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan all switched from Cyrillic to Latin. The government of Kazakhstan announced in 2015 that the Latin alphabet would replace Cyrillic as the writing system for the Kazakh language by 2025. [5]
The spread of the Latin alphabet among previously illiterate peoples has inspired the creation of new writing systems, such as the Avoiuli alphabet in Vanuatu , which replaces the letters of the Latin alphabet with alternative symbols.
This article contains phonetic transcriptions in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) . For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA . For the distinction between [ ] , / / and ⟨ ⟩, see IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters .
Library resources about Latin alphabet
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Representation of Arabic in Latin script
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Edward Lipiński , 2012, Arabic Linguistics: A Historiographic Overview , pages 32–33
^ "Romanization system for Arabic. BGN/PCGN 1956 System" (PDF) .
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Arabic" (PDF) . UNGEGN.
^ Technical reference manual for the standardization of geographical names (PDF) . UNGEGN. 2007. p. 12 [22].
^ "Systèmes français de romanisation" (PDF) . UNGEGN. 2009.
^ "Arabic romanization table" (PDF) . The Library of Congress.
^ "IJMES Translation & Transliteration Guide" . International Journal of Middle East Studies.
^ "Encyclopaedia of Islam Romanization vs ALA Romanization for Arabic" . University of Washington Libraries .
^ Brockelmann, Carl ; Ronkel, Philippus Samuel van (1935). Die Transliteration der arabischen Schrift... (PDF) . Leipzig.
^ Jump up to: a b Reichmuth, Philipp (2009). "Transcription". In Versteegh, Kees (ed.). Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics . Vol. 4. Brill. pp. 515–20.
^ Millar, M. Angélica; Salgado, Rosa; Zedán, Marcela (2005). Gramatica de la lengua arabe para hispanohablantes . Santiago de Chile: Editorial Universitaria. pp. 53–54. ISBN 978-956-11-1799-0 .
^ "Standards, Training, Testing, Assessment and Certification" . BSI Group . Archived from the original on 7 October 2008 . Retrieved 18 May 2014 .
^ ArabTex User Manual Section 4.1 : ASCII Transliteration Encoding.
^ "Buckwalter Arabic Transliteration" . QAMUS LLC.
^ "Arabic Morphological Analyzer/The Buckwalter Transliteration" . Xerox . Retrieved 30 April 2017 .
^ Sullivan, Natalie (July 2017). Writing Arabizi: Orthographic Variation in Romanized Lebanese Arabic on Twitter (Plan II Honors Thesis). doi : 10.15781/T2W951823 .
^ Bjørnsson, Jan Arild (November 2010). "Egyptian Romanized Arabic: A Study of Selected Features from Communication Among Egyptian Youth on Facebook" (PDF) . University of Oslo . Retrieved 31 March 2019 .
^ Abu Elhija, Dua'a (3 July 2014). "A new writing system? Developing orthographies for writing Arabic dialects in electronic media" . Writing Systems Research . 6 (2): 190–214. doi : 10.1080/17586801.2013.868334 . ISSN 1758-6801 .
^ "Arabizi sparks concern among educators" . GulfNews.com. 9 May 2013 . Retrieved 18 May 2014 .
^ "Arabic" (PDF) . ALA-LC Romanization Tables . Library of Congress. p. 9 . Retrieved 14 June 2013 . 21. The prime (ʹ) is used: (a) To separate two letters representing two distinct consonantal sounds, when the combination might otherwise be read as a digraph.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Shrivtiel, Shraybom (1998). The Question of Romanisation of the Script and The Emergence of Nationalism in the Middle East . Mediterranean Language Review. pp. 179–196.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g History of Arabic Writing
^ Shrivtiel, p. 188
Central Asian
Bakhtiari
Bukhara
Kashkadarya
Khorasani
Shirvani
Judeo-Iraqi
Baghdadi
Judeo-Moroccan
Kjal
Wqal
Judeo-Tripolitanian
Judeo-Tunisian
Tunisene
Judeo-Yemeni
Adeni
Beda
Habban
Sanʽani
Italics indicate extinct languages Languages between parentheses are varieties of the language on their left.
The romanization of Arabic is the systematic rendering of written and spoken Arabic in the Latin script . Romanized Arabic is used for various purposes, among them transcription of names and titles, cataloging Arabic language works, language education when used instead of or alongside the Arabic script, and representation of the language in scientific publications by linguists . These formal systems, which often make use of diacritics and non-standard Latin characters and are used in academic settings or for the benefit of non-speakers, contrast with informal means of written communication used by speakers such as the Latin-based Arabic chat alphabet .
Different systems and strategies have been developed to address the inherent problems of rendering various Arabic varieties in the Latin script. Examples of such problems are the symbols for Arabic
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