Adverbs in the literature as an example the story of Jack London's "White Fang" - Иностранные языки и языкознание курсовая работа

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Adverbs in the literature as an example the story of Jack London's "White Fang"

Definition of adverb, its importance as part of the language, different classifications of famous linguists, such as: classification of adverbs according to their meaning, form, function in a sentence. Considered false adverbs and their features.


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CHAPTER ONE . MEANING AND FUNCTIONS OF ADVERB IN MODERN ENGLISH
1.1 The Notion of Adverb in English G rammar
a). Classification of Adverbs According to Their Structure
b). Classification of Adverbs According to Their Meaning
1.2 The Syntactic Functions of Adverbs
Having been neglected for a long time, adverbs and adverbials have recently moved into the center of attention of quite a number of syntaxicians and semanticists. Adverbs provide an interesting field for study. Having once been identified as `perhaps the least studied and most maligned part of speech', the adverb has been widely investigated since, with little agreement arising. In English, adverbs seem to be both freely occurring and highly restricted in terms of distribution. Theories have been put forth in both the syntactic and semantic realms proposing dependency of adverb placement on specialized rules that access certain semantic factors of the adverbs themselves, on feature checking with predetermined nodes of attachment, and on scoping relations amongst adverbs themselves and amongst adverbs and verbs.
Among the disputable question of the structure of Modern English the problem of classification of adverbs is one of the most important, the one which is very complex and seem to be relevant to a number of aspects. The problems of defining adverbs as a class constitutes one of the stumbling-blocks in studying the language, because they comprise a most heterogeneous group of words, and there is considerable overlap between the class and other word classes. They have many kinds of form, meaning and function.
There exist a large amount of literature on this topic. Resent years were marked with a special interest to problem of distinguishing different classifications and functions of adverbs. Works of modern linguists helps us to understand the problem. Still most of the aspects appear to be disputable.
The variety of approaches to the problem of classification of adverbs, the peculiarities of using them, and distinguishing different functions of adverbs have determined the subject matter of this research.
The aim of research consists in the frequency of using different types of adverbs and identifying their functions in the language.
The objective is to investigate the variety of forms of adverbs, to discover the frequency of using adverbs in different functions .
Practical part is based on the selections of the examples from “White Fang ” by Jack London.
The course paper consists of introduction, two chapters, conclusions, resume and list of reference materials.
Chapter one deals with the theoretical approaches to the problem under study.
Chapter two contains the analysis of the examples selected from literary sources.
The results of research are found in Conclusions.
The Resume contains short overview of the course paper.
In List of references the books used in the research are listed.
Chapter 1. Meaning and Functions of Adverbs in Modern English
1.1 The notion of adverb in English grammar
The etymology of the word 'adverb' is the Latin 'ad-' meaning 'to' and 'uerbum', a verb or word. An adverb is usually attached to a verb, modifying or qualifying it. It tells us the way in which the action of the verb is carried out. It may also modify an adjective.
So the adverb is usually defined as a word expressing either property of an action, or property of another property, or circumstances in which an action occurs. This definition, though certainly informative and instructive, fails to directly point out the relation between the adverb and the adjective as the primary qualifying part of speech.
In an attempt to overcome this drawback, let us define the adverb as a notional word expressing a non-substantive property, that is, a property of a non-substantive referent. This formula immediately shows the actual correlation between the adverb and the adjective, since the adjective is a word expressing a substantive property.
Properties may be of a more particular, "organic" order, and a more general and detached, "inorganic" order. Of the organic properties, the adverb denotes those characterizing processes and other properties. Of the inorganic properties, the adverb denotes various circumstantial characteristics of processes or whole situations built around processes.
The above definition, approaching the adverb as a word of the secondary qualifying order, presents the entire class of adverbial words as the least self-dependent of all the four notional parts of speech. Indeed, as has been repeatedly pointed out, the truly complete nominative value is inherent only in the noun, which is the name of substances. The verb comes next in its self-dependent nominative force, expressing processes as dynamic relations of substances, i.e. their dynamic relational properties in the broad sense. After that follow qualifying parts of speech -- first the adjective denoting qualifications of substances, and then the adverb denoting qualifications of non-substantive phenomena which find themselves within the range of notional signification.
As we see, the adverb is characterized by its own, specific nominative value, providing for its inalienable status in the system of the parts of speech. Hence, the complaints of some linguists that the adverb is not rigorously defined and in fact presents something like a "dump" for those words which have been rejected by other parts of speech can hardly be taken as fully justified. On the other hand, since the adverb does denote qualifications of the second order, not of the first one like the adjective, it includes a great number of semantically weakened words which are in fact intermediate between notional and functional lexemes by their status and often display features of pronominal nature.
So we may say that the adverb is a word denoting circumstances or characteristics which attend or modify an action, state, or quality. It may also intensify a quality or characteristics.
From this definition it is difficult to define adverbs as a class, because they comprise a most heterogeneous group of words, and there is considerable overlap between the class and other word classes. They have many kinds of form, meaning and function. Alongside such undoubtful adverbs as here, now, often, seldom, always, there are many others which all function as words of other classes. Thus, adverbs like dead (dead tired), clear (to get clear away), clean (I've clean forgotten), slow, easy (he would say that slow and easy) coincide with corresponding adjectives (a dead body, clear waters, clean hands). Adverbs like past, above are homonymous with prepositions. There is also a special group of pronominal adverbs when, when how, why used either as interrogative words or as connectives to introduce subordinate clauses.
a). Classification of adverbs according to their structure
Adverbs comprise a most heterogeneous group of words. They have many kinds of form and meaning. That's why there are many classifications of adverbs. There are several classifications of adverbs made by different scholars. And they differ from each other, representing various points of view conserning the way of classification. Adverbs vary in their structure.
Accordingly, Professor V. L. Kaushanskaya classified adverbs according to their word-building structure into simple and derived. [9, p. 143]
Simple adverbs are rather few, and nearly all of them display functional semantics, mostly of pronominal character: here, there, now, then, so, quite, why, how, where, when.
In derived adverbs the most common suffix is -ly, by means of which new adverbs are coined from adjectives and participles: occasionally, lately, immediately, constantly, purely, slowly, charmingly.
The less common suffixes are the following:
-wise clockwise, crabwise, corkscrew -wise, education-wise
-ward(s) onward(s), backward(s), homeward(s), eastward(s)
The first two of these suffixes are more productive than the rest.
Compound adverbs are formed of two stems: sometimes, somewhere, everywhere, downstairs, etc.
Composite phrasal adverbs consist of two or more word-forms, as a great deal, a little bit, far enough, now and then, from time to time, sort of, kind of, a hell of, a lot of, a great deal of.
As adverbs make up a rather complicated group of words varying widely
in form and distribution there is one more classification of adverbs according to their structure.
Considered in their morphemic structure, Rayevskaya classified adverbs
1--2. The two largest groups are those formed from derived and base adjectives by adding the suffix -ly, e. g.: hopefully, physically, strangely, falsely, etc.
3. The third group consists of those that are formed by means of the derivational prefix -a (phonemically [?]) to nouns, adjectives or verbs. Of about sixty of them in more or less common use nearly half are formed from nouns: e.g. aboard, aside, away, etc.
The rest are about equally divided among those formed from verbs, e. g.: amiss, astir; from adjectives -- anew, abroad.
In traditional grammars such words are generally classed as both adjectives and adverbs and they are so listed in most dictionaries, which seems hardly justified since from the structural point of view none of them can fit the basic adjective position between determiner and noun. (We cannot say the aloud voice or the adrift boat) .
4. The fourth size of rapid growth includes those formed by adding the derivational suffix -wise to nouns.
A few adverbs of this type are well-established words like clockwise, otherwise, likewise; others are recent coinages or nonce words like crabwise and actor-wise. In American English the suffix -wise is most active and can be more freely attached to many nouns to create adverbs like personnel-wise. Such forms are recognized in writing by the use of the hyphen.
5. Then comes a smaller group of adverbs formed by the addition of the derivational suffix -ward(s) to a limited group of nouns; home-ward(s), forward(s), backward(s). Most adverbs of this group have two forms, one with the final s and one without, variously distributed. The forms without s are homonymous with adjectives: the backward child, he looked backward.
6. Next we come to a group of adverbs formed by combining the pronouns some, any, every and no with a limited number of nouns or pronominal adverbs, such as: someplace, anyway, everywhere, nowhere, etc. , There are fewer than twenty of these in common use.
7. Another relatively small group of adverbs includes those that are formally identical with prepositions: about, around, before, down, in, inside, over, on, etc.
8. The last group of adverbs is the miscellaneous class of those that have no formal signals at all to distinguish them in isolation; we know them as adverbs because of their positions in utterances, in which the other parts of speech are clearly identifiable. Many adverbs in this group are fairly frequent in occurrence: always, now, then, here, there, often, seldom, still, even. Others in this group are words which may also appear as other parts of speech, such as: downstairs, home, late, little, fast, slow, early, far, near.
A word should be said about adverb-qualifiers. Among adverbs there are some which have degrees of comparison and others which have not.
Adverbs in the comparative degree, whether formed by adding the suffix -er or analytically by adding more and most may take the same qualifiers that comparative adjectives do, e. g.: still more difficult, a little louder.
The adverbial meaning can be intensified by adding right, far, by far, e. g.: far ahead, right ahead, far better, better by far, far down, far below, etc.
Intensity of adverbial meaning may also be produced by the use of full and well as intensifies. The latter are survivals of Old English and less frequent in present-day use, e. g: He was well out of sight; well ahead, etc.
A special point of linguistic interest is presented by the development of "merged" or "separable" adverbs. The term "merged" is meant here to bring out the fact that such separable compounds are lexically and grammatically indivisible and form a single idea.
Considered in their structure, such "separable" compounds may be classified as follows:
a) preposition + noun: at hand, at home, by heart, on horseback, [on foot (= by foot -- arch.), in turn, to date;
noun + preposition + noun: arm in arm, day by day, day after day, day to day, face to face, word for word, year by year;
preposition + substantivized adjective: at last, at first, at large, in large, in full, in quiet, in short, in vain, of late, of old;
preposition + verbal noun made through conversion: at a guess, at a run, in a rush, on the move, on the run;
preposition + numeral: at first, at once, at one, by twos;
coordinate adverbs: by and by, on and off (== off and on), on and on;
g) pronoun + adjective (or participle): all right, all told, 0. K- (all correct);
h) preposition + pronoun: after all, in all, at all.
In point of fact most adverbs of that kind may be reasonably referred to as grammatical idioms. This can be seen, for instance, in the unusual absence of the article before their noun components and specialized use of the noun in its singular form only: on foot (but not on the foot, or on feet which may occur in tree prepositional word-groups), in fact (but not in the fact), at first (but not at the first), etc.
b) Classification of adverbs according to their meaning
According to their meaning, Morokhovskaya divides adverbs into the following groups:
adverbs of time: now, then, yesterday, lately, already, soon, yet, afterwards, presently, immediately, eventually, suddenly, at once, when, etc.
Adverbs of time may be subdivided as follows:
Of time present: now, yet, today, nowadays, presently, instantly, immediately, straightway, directly, forthwith.
Of time past: already, just now, lately, recently, yesterday, formerly, anciently, once, since, till now, long ago.
Of time to come: tomorrow, hereafter, henceforth, henceforward, by-and-by, soon, shortly.
Of time relative: when, then, first, just, before, after, while, whilst, meanwhile, as, till, until, seasonably, betimes, early, late, whenever, afterward, afterwards, otherwhile, otherwhiles.
Of time absolute: always, ever, never, aye, eternally, forever, perpetually, continually, incessantly, endlessly, evermore, everlastingly.
Of time repeated: often, oft, again, occasionally, frequently, sometimes, seldom, rarely, daily, weekly, monthly, yearly, annually, once, twice, thrice, or three times. Above this, we use only the phrases four times, five times, six times. Whether these ought to be reckoned adverbs, or not, is questionable: times, for repetitions, or instances, may be supposed a noun; but such phrases often appear to be used adverbially.
2) adverbs of frequency: often, seldom, sometimes, always, hardly ever, never, constantly, occasionally, twice, three times, etc.
E.g. He is always in time for meals.
3) adverbs of place or direction: here, there, everywhere, downstairs, below, ashore, abroad, inside, outside, seaward(s), to and fro, backwards, where, etc.
A dog began to bark somewhere inside.
The use of somewhere, anywhere and nowhere in different kinds of sentences is similar to the use of the corresponding indefinite pronouns some, any and no.
4) adverbs of manner: well, badly, fast, quickly, clearly, deeply, sincerely, willingly, sideways, somehow, how, etc.
George played very badly in the match yesterday.
Adverbs of manner saying how an action is performed can freely occur with dynamic verbs, but not with stative verbs.
E.g. He looked into the problem carefully.
5) adverbs of degree or intensifiers: very, quite, extremely, somewhat, really, enough, too, pretty, so, rather, unusually, terribly, highly, perfectly, much, completely, nearly, etc.
Adverbs of degree or intensifiers may be subdivided into three semantic groups:
a) emphasizers (emphasizing the truth of the communication): really, actually, clearly, definitely, indeed, plainly, simply, literally, fust, at all, etc.
E.g. I really don't know what he wants.
b) amplifiers (expressing a high degree): absolutely, altogether, completely, entirely, extremely, fully, perfectly, quite, thoroughly, utterly, very, much, badly, bitterly, deeply, (by) far, greatly, heartily, terribly, a great deal, etc. E.g. I thoroughly disapprove of his methods.
c) downtoners (lowering the effect): quite, rather, enough, sufficiently, more or less, moderately, partly, slightly, somewhat, (a) little, a bit, barely, hardly, scarcely, almost, nearly, kind of, sort of, etc.
6) focusing adverbs which can be of two kinds:
a) restrictive: alone, exactly, just, merely, only, precisely, purely, simply, especially, etc.
My father alone could help me at the time.
b) additive: again, also, either, equally, even, too, etc.
E.g. He didn't answer my letter again.
I, too, am very busy at the moment.
7) viewpoint adverbs: morally, politically, scientifically, economically, weatherwise, program-wise, etc. Such adverbs are understood to mean 'from a moral (political, scientific) point of view'.
E.g. Geographically and linguistically, these islands are closer to the mainland than to the neighbouring islands. Economically, the project is bound to fail.
8) attitudinal adverbs which express the speaker's comment on the content of what he is saying. Such adverbs can be of two kinds:
a) adverbs expressing a comment on the truth-value of what is being said, indicating the extent to which the speaker believes what he is saying is true: admittedly, certainly, decidedly, definitely, surely, undoubtedly, allegedly, doubtless, quite likely, maybe, perhaps, possibly, probably, presumably, supposedly, obviously, apparently, etc.
E.g. Perhaps the public does not have much choice in the matter.
Certainly, he had very little reason to fear anyone.
b) adverbs expressing some attitude towards what is being said: amazingly, curiously, funnily enough, incredibly, ironically, oddly, remarkably, strangely, unexpectedly, typically, (un)fortunately, (un)happlly, (un)luckily, preferably, tragically, significantly, (in)correctly, (un)justly, cleverly, foolishly, reasonably, sensibly, etc.
E.g. He is wisely staying at home tonight.
Naturally we were extremely annoyed when we received the letter.
9) conjunctive adverbs: flrst(ly), secondly, next, then, finally, lastly, further, furthermore, too, above all, likewise, similarly, incidentally, by the way, thus, therefore, namely, for example, that is, accordingly, consequently, hence, so, as a result, otherwise, in other words, in that case, rather, alternatively, on the one (other) hand, instead, on the contrary, anyhow, anyway, besides, however, nevertheless, still, though, yet, at any rale, for all that, in spite of that, meantime, meanwhile, etc.
E.g. I'd like you to do two things for me. First, phone the office and tell them I'll be late. Secondly, order a taxi to be here in about half an hour.
I didn't like the food there. However, I didn't complain about it.
10) formulaic adverbs (markers of courtesy): kindly, cordially, please, etc.
E.g. Will you kindly help me with the parcel?
We cordially invite you to our party.
Let me have a look at the picture, please.
The adverbs when, where, how and why belonging to different semantic groups mentioned above have one point in common--they serve to form questions and introduce some kinds of subordinate clauses. In the former case, owing to their auxiliary function, they are called interrogative adverbs (a). In the latter case, also owing to their auxiliary function, they are called conjunctive adverbs (b). In both cases they perform different adverbial functions in the sentence.
E.g. a) When did you see him last? (adverbial modifier of time)
Where are you going? (adverbial modifier of place)
How did you manage it? (adverbial modifier of manner)
Why didn't you tell me about it? (adverbial modifier of cause)
E.g. b) Sunday was the day when he was least busy, (adverbial modifier of lime)
The thing to find out was where he was then, (adverbial modifier of place)
How it was done remains a mystery to me, (adverbial modifier of manner)
I wanted to know why he had left us so abruptly. (adverbial modifier of cause)
As is seen from the above examples, the conjunctive adverbs can introduce attributive, predicative, subject and object clauses. [11, 346]
The adverb how, in addition to the above functions, can also be placed at the head of an exclamatory sentence. In this case it is often followed by an adjective or an adverb but it may also be used alone. This how is sometimes called the exclamatory how.
E.g. How unfair grown-ups are! Oh, how the baby cries!
There is one more classification of adverbs according to their meaning.
Adverbs are commonly divided into qualitative, quantitative and circumstantial.
By qualitative such adverbs are meant as express immediate, inherently non-graded qualities of actions and other qualities. The typical adverbs of this kind are qualitative adverbs in -ly.
E.g. The little boy was crying bitterly over his broken toy.
The plainly embarrassed Department of Industry confirmed the fact of the controversial deal.
The adverbs interpreted as "quantitative" include words of degree. These are specific lexical units of semi-functional nature expressing quality measure, or gradational evaluation of qualities. They may be subdivided into several very clearly pronounced sets.
The first set is formed by adverbs of high degree. These adverbs are sometimes classed as "intensifiers": very, quite, entirely, utterly, highly, greatly, perfectly, absolutely, strongly, considerably, pretty, much. The second set includes adverbs of excessive degree (direct and reverse) also belonging to the broader subclass of intensifiers: too, awfully, tremendously, dreadfully, terrifically. The third set is made up of adverbs of unexpected degree: surprisingly, astonishingly, amazingly. The fourth set is formed by adverbs of moderate degree: fairly, comparatively, relatively, moderately, rather. The fifth set includes adverbs of low degree: slightly, a little, a bit. The sixth set is constituted by adverbs of approximate degree: almost, nearly. The seventh set includes adverbs of optimal degree: enough, sufficiently, adequately. The eighth set is formed by adverbs of inadequate degree: insufficiently, intolerably, unbearably, ridiculoulsy. The ninth set is made up of adverbs of under-degree: hardly, scarcely.
As we see, the degree adverbs, though usually described under the heading of "quantitative", in reality constitute a specific variety of qualitative words, or rather some sort of intermediate qualitative-quantitative words, in so far as they are used as quality evaluators. In this function they are distinctly different from quantitative adverbs which are directly related to numerals and thereby form sets of words of pronominal order. Such are numerical-pronominal adverbs like twice, thrice, four times, etc.; twofold, threefold, manyfold, etc.
Thus, we will agree that the first general subclass of adverbs is formed by qualitative adverbs which are subdivided into qualitative adverbs of lull notional value and degree adverbs -- specific functional words.
Circumstantial adverbs are also divided into notional and functional.
The functional circumstantial adverbs are words of pronominal nature. Besides quantitative (numerical) adverbs mentioned above, they include adverbs of time, place, manner, cause, consequence. Many of these words are used as syntactic connectives and question-forming functionals. Here belong such words as now, here, when, where, so, thus, how, why, etc.
As for circumstantial adverbs of more self-dependent nature, they include two basic sets: first, adverbs of time; second, adverbs of place: today, tomorrow, already, ever, never, shortly, recently, seldom, early, late; homeward, eastward, near, far, outside, ashore, etc. The two varieties express a general idea of temporal and spatial orientation and essentially perform deictic (indicative) functions in the broader sense. Bearing this in mind, we may unite them under the general heading of "orientative" adverbs, reserving the term "circumstantial" to syntactic analysis of utterances.
Thus, the whole class of adverbs will be divided, first, into nominal and pronominal, and the nominal adverbs will be subdivided into qualitative and orientative, the former including genuine qualitative adverbs and degree adverbs, the latter falling into temporal and local adverbs, with further possible subdivisions of more detailed specifications.
There are some adverbs which may modify nouns or words of nominal character, functioning as attribute, as in: the way ahead, the trip abroad, the journey home, his return home, the sentence above(below), my friend here, the house opposite, the day before, etc.
In some combinations the adverbs modifying a noun become adjectivized, e.g. the then Prime Minister, in the above examples, in after years and some others.
Some groups of adverbs, namely, viewpoint, attitudinal and formulaic ones, modify whole sentences.
Whole phrases of words can also perform the function of an adverb. If the phrase contains a subject and a verb, it is called an adverbial clause.
E.g. When the bus arrived, we were able to start our journey
The phrase, 'when the bus comes', contains a subject ('the bus') and a verb ('comes'), and it modifies the sentence verb, 'able'.
If the phrase does not contain a subject and verb, then it is called an adverbial phrase.
E.g. In the morning, we started our journey. We started in the morning.
In the both sentences, the phrase 'in the morning' modifies the verb 'started' by telling us when the journey was started. In this example, the adverbial phrase is also a prepositional phrase.
E.g.: Most demonstrators were exhausted namely two were carried to the hospital.
E.g.: Fortunately, all people returned home in peace.
Most parenthetical adverbs are separated by commas. Logically speaking, they don't add any meaning to the sentence. For example, “perhaps” is usually not separated by commas, because it's essential to the meaning. Parenthetical adverbs can also be called modal adverbs or sentence adverbs.
This data shows that we need to make a strict distinction between the illocutionary status and the prosodic properties of an adverb.
There is a large consensus that evaluatives provide a commentary on content, rather than being part of the content of the sentence. This is challenged by Bach, who contrasts evaluatives (which he calls `assesives') both with adverbs such as modals and with a number of expressions which he classifies as `utterance modifiers' (usually called `speech act modifiers'). The reason is that, although they differ from modals in contributing a different proposition from the main one, they can be found in embedded sentences, as in (1), which prevents them from being considered utterance modifiers. However, Bach himself does not propose an explicit analysis. The first question is: what is the status of the commentary? and the second one: how can it be implemented in a formal grammar? As to their status, evaluatives have been considered either to constitute a speech act, independent of the main one , or to convey conventional implicatures.
The two speech act analysis cannot be maintained. It shows that the utterance of a parenthetical (an in particular, an evaluative) does not have full assertoric force. Evaluatives can express commitments of an agent distinct from the speaker, at least in reportive contexts.
Chapter 2. Meaning and functions of adverbs in the novel
Through this course paper, we attempt to distinguish different forms and functions of the adverbs. In order to do this, we need to learn not only rules but its practical application in discourse. For this we took the novel “White Fang” by Jack London. Adverbs comprise a most heterogeneous group of words. They have many kinds of form, meaning and function. So we observe different types of adverbs in this book.
E. g. The thing done thoroughly and with dispatch. [3, p. 147]
The grey cub's eyes had not been open long, yet already he could see with steady clearness. [3, p. 63]
Adverbs vary in their structure and meaning. That's why there are many different classifications of adverbs.
In accordance with their word-building structure adverbs may be simple and derived.
We observe many simple and derived adverbs in the novel “White Fang”. This can be demonstrated by the following examples.
E.g. After several experiences, White Fang was to be let alone. [3, p. 151]
Here and there he could see one curled up in the snow like a dog, taking the sleep that was now denied himself. [3, p. 31]
The typical adverbial affixes in affixal derivation are first and foremost, the basic and only productive adverbial suffix -ly. We can find many examples of such a type of adverbs in the book.
E.g. He bristled fiercely and looked ominously across the shin-bone at White Fang. [3, p. 140]
His mate looked at him anxiously. [3, p. 57]
This gave them the seeming of ghostly masques, undertakers in a spectral world at the funeral of some ghost. [3, p. 7]
He got out of bed carefully, so as not to disturb the sleep of his comrade, and threw more wood on the fire. [3, p. 12]
Small group of adverbs are formed by adding the derivational suffix --wise to nouns.
E.g. Grey Beaver's wrath was terrible; likewise was White Fang's fright. [3, p. 111]
Otherwise he ignored them. [3, p. 131]
She brushed her nose her paws, trying to dislodge the fiery darts, thrust it into the snow, and rubbed it against twigs and branches and all the time leaping about, ahead, sidewise, up and down, in a frenzy of pain and fright. [3, p. 61
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