Abu Muslim

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Abu Muslim

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In 747 the black banners of revolt were raised in Khurasan, the huge eastern province of the Umayyad Caliphate. Over the next three years, revolutionary armies marched west, defeating the imperial armies of the Umayyads in a series of bloody battles, culminating in a final showdown at the Zaab River. By 750, the Umayyads were overthrown, and the once-mighty caliphal dynasty was all but obliterated. 
I have already discussed the Abbasid/Hashemite Revolution in a previous article , in this article I will focus on the architect of the Abbasid Revolution, Abu Muslim, often referred to as Abu Muslim al-Khurasani in the sources. Abu Muslim’s role in planning, organizing, and leading the revolution was instrumental to its success. He lived an extraordinary life; he was a servant/slave, a partisan, a revolutionary, a soldier, and rose to be the most powerful man in the caliphate. So powerful was his charisma and his persona that many of his followers worshipped and deified him. When he was treacherously murdered by the caliph, al-Mansur, in 755, Abu Muslim’s devotees rose in rebellion to avenge his death and wholeheartedly held messianic beliefs prophesying his return to save them and usher in an era of justice and prosperity.
Not much is known about Abu Muslim’s early life and background. He was probably born either near Isfahan (modern-day Iran) or farther east in Khurasan in the city of Marw (also referred to as Marv in modern-day Turkmenistan). The sources are not clear regarding his origin and his real name. Abu Muslim was his revolutionary title, given to him by the Abbasid imam Ibrahim, whom he supported. Some sources state that he was Iranian and a descendent of Godarz and Bozorgmeher (the Sasanian vizier of Khusraw Anushrivan) and give his name as Ibrahim, while others give his name as Behzadan son of Vendad Hormoz. Other sources link him to the Banu Hashim clan as a scion of the Abbasids or Alids. None of these assertions can be ascertained without a doubt. However, the sources do agree that Abu Muslim grew up in Kufa (Iraq), a city that was well-known for political and religious turmoil and had become a center of discontent against Umayyad rule.
The Umayyads’ policies angered several sections of the caliphate’s population. They favored their Arab supporters, primarily the Arab tribes that had settled in Syria and primarily those from Northern Arabia (also known as the Qays/Qaysis). The Arabs of Iraq, those of Southern Arabia (known as the Yaman or Qalb), as well as non-Arab converts to Islam (known as mawali or clients) and many non-Muslims were all unhappy with these policies. In addition to these groups, there were those who had favored a caliph or imam from the prophet’s family, who were the Alids (many of whom would eventually become the Shia sect). At the time of the Abbasid Revolution the Alids held beliefs that varied in intensity from being moderate to extreme – the latter are referred to as the ghulat or extremists in the sources and held such beliefs as the deification of the imams and others such as Abu Muslim as we will see.
It is interesting to note that although the blame for the discrimination and the unequal treatment of the population is laid squarely on the Umayyads, it was their agents in Khurasan who carried out and abused the populace. Many of these agents in the east were Persian and Iranian nobles who were Zoroastrians who had retained their positions after the Arab conquest. They operated much the same way as they had under the Sasanians as the rulers’ agents and tax collectors. Scholars such as Roberto Marin-Guzman and Muhammad Qasim Zaman have noted that these Iranian nobles overtaxed the population, especially those among their countrymen who had converted from Zoroastrianism or one of the local cults/religions to Islam.
Al-Tabari first mentions Abu Muslim as a slave or a servant. He changed patrons several times until Muhammad ibn Ali, the head of the Abbasid family manumitted him. As a freedman, Abu Muslim continued to support and serve the Abbasids (a common practice among freedmen), who were led by Ibrahim ibn Muhammad after his father’s death in 743. Al-Tabari relates an anecdote in which a group of Khurasanis visiting Kufa on their way to Mecca visited some of the Abbasids’ partisans who had been imprisoned on suspicion of spreading anti-Umayyad propaganda. Abu Muslim was among those imprisoned. The sources state that the Khurasanis recognized unusual qualities in him and asked who he was and those with him said that he was a saddle maker. It is noteworthy that the Khurasanis took notice of him, which indicates Abu Muslim’s charisma. This anecdote, whether accurate or not, is also setting Abu Muslim up for “greater things.”
The Abbasids sent Abu Muslim to organize and lead the revolutionary movement that had started in Khurasan in their name. The Abbasids realized that the vast eastern province was the perfect place from which to launch a revolt. It was far away from the Umayyad center of power, it had a big population, many of its people were veteran warriors due to the constant frontier battles against nomadic raiders, the discontent with Umayyad rule was high, and tribal tensions between the Qaysis and Qalbis had also intensified. Ibrahim, the head of the Abbasid clan, had sent missives to all the missionaries already operating in Khurasan to obey Abu Muslim. However, some of the more notable leaders of the anti-Umayyad movement refused to do so under the pretext that Abu Muslim was too young and inexperienced and due to his obscure lineage. These leaders met in person with Ibrahim in Mecca who confirmed Abu Muslim’s paramount position.
Abu Muslim settled in a village inhabited by Yamani Arabs and sent agents throughout the province to spread pro-Abbasid propaganda and to recruit revolutionaries for the inevitable uprising. He was able to secure the support of the Yamani Arabs in Khurasan (who resented the Umayyads favoring the Qaysis/Northerners) and also gained a devoted following among the Iranians. These supporters included long-standing Arab and Iranian members of Muslim society, recent Iranian converts, and those practicing their local religions and traditional regional beliefs. The latter group probably came from regions that were barely conquered and where Islam had not taken root. The enrollment of such men from these areas into the revolutionary movement constituted their entry into Muslim society. According to Patricia Crone, their opponents saw them as “barbarians” from the backwoods of Khurasan and as being different from the mawali with whom the Arabs had been in contact. These revolutionaries brought with them their pre-Islamic beliefs and practices merging them with their new religion. Their Islam consisted of their hatred of the Umayyads and their supporters and their fierce loyalty to their new Muslim leaders, primary among whom was Abu Muslim. It is noteworthy that Crone points out the devotion of these new converts and their sincerity to their new faith. These Khurasanis were aware of their Iranian past, but they marched on the caliphate’s capital not to restore the Sasanian Empire, but to avenge the prophet’s family and to restore justice by placing someone from the prophet’s family on the caliphal throne.
Abu Muslim launched a brilliant propaganda movement summoning all to rise against the Umayyads. The vague nature of this propaganda led to the Abbasid/Hashemite Revolution becoming a syncretic movement that combined many groups with varying aims and objectives. Abu Muslim called for replacing the Umayyads with someone from the household (i.e. family) of the prophet or the ahl al-bayt . At this point the idea of who or what ahl al-bayt constituted was not clear and could be anyone from the clan of Banu Hasim (later the Shia sect would restrict the ahl al-bayt to the descendants of Ali and Fatima). Abu Muslim was able to rally non-Arab converts to Islam who felt they were treated unfairly, Yamani Arabs resentful at their Qaysi rivals, Alids who believed that a descendant of Ali would be named caliph, some Iranian nobles who hoped to restore their families’ fortunes, and those who hoped for more equity and justice from a new ruler. The Abbasids and Abu Muslim later also legitimized the Abbasid seizure of the caliphate by stating they were a part of the ahl al-bayt and also claiming that they had received divine designation or nass (very important to the early Alids and later Shias) from a Shia imam, Abu Hashim, who was the son of Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyya, the son of Ali ibn Abi Talib and a concubine. In 685 an unsuccessful revolt that lasted for two years was launched in the name of ibn al-Hanafiyya in Kufa. It was the Alid survivors of this revolt who formed the core of the earliest Abbasid partisans and supporters after the Abbasid Muhammad ibn Ali was allegedly designated as Abu Hashim’s successor as imam.
According to the very detailed account of the Abbasid Revolution that al-Tabari presents in his universal history, Abu Muslim was an excellent leader, organizer, and also very charismatic. He organized the revolutionary army, ensured it was supplied and had the new soldiers trained. He also built fortified camps and occupied abandoned fortresses and had them repaired. There are several accounts of Abu Muslim praying with his followers and treating them to feasts, raising their morale, and ensuring that they tied their success and well-being to his victories. As a result, Abu Muslim created a revolutionary army that was devoted to him.
In 747 Abu Muslim publicly proclaimed his uprising against the Umayyads. He lit a large fire, which was the signal for his troops to assemble. As word spread, the villagers who had pledged their support mustered to his black banner. Nasr ibn Sayyar, the last Umayyad governor of Khurasan, sent an army to deal with the rebels. Abu Muslim dispatched one of his officers with a force that defeated the Umayyads capturing several of them. This further enhanced Abu Muslim’s reputation and his support grew. Nasr, a northerner, attempted to mend fences with the Yamanis to unite the Arab tribes of Khurasan, but was confounded by Abu Muslim’s agents. He also pleaded for reinforcements from the caliph Marwan II, but none arrived. Marwan was busy dealing with Kharijite revolts closer to home. The Qaysis and Yamanis started fighting one another and both sides sought Abu Muslim’s support. Abu Muslim chose to aid the Yamanis. Nasr was driven out of his capital, Marw, which Abu Muslim occupied in early 748. He had also captured Herat and Balkh and his forces continued driving the Umayyad governor west. Before sending his armies further west, Abu Muslim consolidated his position quelling a revolt against him in Balkh and dealing with an aspirant to the caliphate, one Shayban ibn Salama, the leader of the Kharijites in the region of Marw.
Nasr gathered an army of 30,000 men, but Qahtaba ibn Shabib, one of Abu Muslim’s generals, defeated this force and put its remnants to flight. The rebels took Gorgan, Rayy, Hamadan, Nihavand, and other important cities and towns in Iran as they made their way to Iraq and Syria. At Gorgan, Qahtaba faced a large reinforcement army sent to stem the rebel advance. He defeated this force as well and proceeded to execute a large number of Gorgan’s inhabitants who were planning to revolt in support of the Umayyads. This shows the complex nature of the Abbasid Revolution and that not all Iranians opposed the Umayyads and supported Abu Muslim.
With the fall of Nihavand, the rebels started to advance into Iraq. Marwan II gathered the armies of Syria, Jazira, and Northern Iraq and marched to confront them in person. The situation was deteriorating at a fast pace for the Umayyads. Kufa fell to the rebels after most of the garrison switched sides. Abu Salama, the chief Alid propagandist took over as governor. Ibrahim had been imprisoned and killed by Marwan a few months earlier and his brothers, Abu ‘l-Abbas and Abu Jafar, fled to Kufa where Abu Salama concealed them and attempted unsuccessfully to place an Alid on the throne. An Alid on the throne would have not served Abu Muslim at all, he directed Hasan ibn Qahtaba, now the commander after his father’s death during the march west, and the other Khurasani generals to swear allegiance to an Abbasid. They were able to find Ibrahim’s brother and proclaimed Abu ‘l-Abbas, who took the regnal title al-Saffah, as the new caliph. The final showdown between the Umayyads and the Abbasid revolutionaries took place near the Zab River, where Marwan II’s forces were defeated and routed by a Khurasani army under the command of Abd Allah ibn Ali, the new caliph’s uncle.
After this final battle, all resistance to the Abbasids melted away and Marwan was caught and killed in Egypt as he fled west. Most of the remaining Umayyads were hunted down and killed by the avenging Abbasids.
Abu Muslim remained in Khurasan and directed the revolution from Marw. He grew in power and authority and eliminated anyone who opposed his rule. As kingmaker and the individual to whom the most powerful military groups, namely the Khurasanis, were loyal, he was the single most powerful man in the caliphate. Al-Saffah was aware of Abu Muslims power and rightly feared him. The new caliph was suspicious of Abu Salama, who was now his vizier. But before taking any action he sent his brother Abu Jafar to ask his permission to dispose of the vizier, fearing that Abu Muslim may either support the vizier or avenge him. Abu Muslim not only gave his consent to the killing of Abu Salama, but also sent the assassin to carry out the deed. Abu Jafar, the future caliph al-Mansur, was greatly disturbed by what he saw in Khurasan during his stay with Abu Muslim. He observed that Abu Muslim had absolute power in Khurasan and upon his return to Kufa, he warned al-Saffah that he could not really exercise power as the caliph while Abu Muslim ruled in Khurasan. Abu Muslim appointed and deposed governors, ordered the execution of his enemies, collected taxes in his own name, and even minted his own coins. He did all this without seeking the approval of the caliph.
In 753 Abu Muslim decided to go on pilgrimage to Mecca and set out with an army of 8,000 men. He approached the caliph’s capital with 1,000 men, leaving most of them behind because the caliph would not permit such a large army to enter his domains. There was a clear tension between the Abbasids and the man who had won the throne for them. Abu Muslim also seems to have felt that he needed to surround himself with large numbers of loyal followers to ensure his safety. Al-Saffah sent out a delegation to welcome Abu Muslim and consented to permit him to carry out the pilgrimage. However, he insisted on naming his brother, Abu Jafar, the leader of the pilgrimage, and attached him to Abu Muslim’s entourage. Abu Jafar’s mistrust of Abu Muslim grew as his charismatic personality and generosity made him popular and endeared him to all those with
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