7 INDIAN THEATRE
Nitin-Singhania.
Theatres of Entertainment of North, West and Eastern Part of India
INTRODUCTION
It has been postulated that the excavated ruins at Sitabena and Jogimara caves represent the world’s oldest amphitheatres. This is just one of the instances that highlight the long tradition of theatre in Indian cultural scenario. In Bharat Muni’s Natya Shastra, Lord Brahma created the Natya Veda for the pastime of Gods, combining elements of the four Vedas. Natya shastra itself was written in the period between 200 BC and 200 AD and is the first formal treatise on dramaturgy. In it, ten types of play - from one-act play to 10 acts - has been described and covers all aspects of classical Sanskrit literature.
CLASSICAL SANSKRIT THEATRE
Theatre in India began as a narrative art form, which encompassed a concoction of music, dance and acting. Recitation, dance and music were integral parts of theatre. The Sanskrit word ‘nataka’ was derived from the root word ‘nata’ which actually meant a dancer. Rupaka, Drishyakavya and Preksakavya were other words used to describe drama. In ancient India, plays were generally of two types:
• Lokadharmi: These were realistic depictions of daily life.
• Natyadharmi: These were conventional plays with a more stylised narration and overt symbolism.
Sariputraprakarana by Ashvaghosha, an eminent philosopher, is considered the first example of classical Sanskrit drama. It was a nine act play. Another important playwright of the time was Bhasa, who composed 13 plays probably in the period between 3rd-4th century AD. Sudraka was the first to introduce the essence of conflict in his play Mricchakatika. Apart from a hero and a heroine, this play features an antagonist for the first time. Kalidasa is perhaps the most popular among the Sanskrit playwrights. His three works - Malavikagnimitram, Vikramorvashi and Shakuntalam - are some of the finest examples of classical Sanskrit drama. Kalidasa was unparallel in his portrayal of the eternal conflict between desire and duty. Some of the other examples of plays are Uttaramacharita and Mahaviracharita by Bhavabhuti, Mudrarakshasa by Visakhadatta and Ratnavali by Harshavardhana. In the classical Sanskrit tradition, plays were categorised into 10 types - namely Anka, Bhana, Dima, Ihamgra, Nataka, Prahasana, Prakarana, Svakarna, Vithi and Vyayog. Natya Shastra describes only two of these - Nataka and Prakarna. Classical Sanskrit play was bound by some rigid conventions:
• They were generally four to seven-act plays.
• They always had happy-endings. (unlike the Greek tragedies), where the hero wins or does not die. Portrayal of tragedy was almost rare.
• The protagonist was male who would always achieve the object of his desire at the end.
• The plays had well defined opening, progression, development, pause and conclusion.
Sanskrit plays followed an almost ritualistic progression as described below:
• The play started with a number of pre-play rituals, also known as purva-raga, most of which were performed behind the curtain.
• Following this, the Sutradhar, who was the stage manager and director, entered the stage with his assistants. Dressed in white, he would offer worship to the deity and seek his blessings.
• After that, the leading lady was summoned and the time and place of the play was announced by the Sutradhar. He also gave a brief introduction of the playwright.
• The theatre, as per Bharata, could accommodate around four hundred persons.
• The stages were two-storeyed. While the upper floor was used for representing celestial sphere, the lower one represented the terrestrial sphere.
• Curtains were used to intensify the impact of play. However, masks were not used.
Characters in Sanskrit plays were important. They were broadly classified into three kinds which are Nayaka (Hero or the Protagonist), Nayika (Heroine) and the Vidusaka (Clown).
• Nayaka (Hero), played by males may be of different personalities like Lalita (Kind- hearted), Shanta (Calm and composed), Uddhata (Agitated or arrogant), etc. Hero may also be ‘Pratinayaka’ (Anatagonist) like Ravana, Duryodhana, etc.
• Nayika (Heroine), played by females are queens, friends, courtesans (ganika) and divine lady (Divya).
• Vidusaka (Clown), the comic character plays a vital role in the plays. He is the noble and good-hearted, often a friend of hero. He questions the prevailing social norms through satire. Traditionally, he spoke in Prakrit while others in Sanskrit.
Thus, the Sanskrit play became an amalgamation of entertainment and religious traditions.
Reasons for Decline of Sanskrit Theatre
The reasons for decline of Sanskrit theatre include:
• As Sanskrit dramatists began to diverge towards poetry, the lyrical writings started gaining popularity over the dramatic works.
• The rigid orthodoxy of the Sanskrit theatre restricted the creative space of new playwrights who turned to other forms.
• As Sanskrit became more and more embellished, it lost popularity among the masses. It was increasingly confined to the religious sphere and among the Brahmins, while other languages such as Pali and Prakrit took its place.
• With the advent of Muslim rulers, Sanskrit theatre took a definite backseat, as dance and music gained patronage.
Koothiyattam (Koodiyattam) is India’s oldest continuing form of theatre and living tradition that has survived since 10th century AD in Kerala. It completely adheres to the rules laid down in Natya Shastra and is the traditional privilege of the Chakyar and Nambiar castes of Kerala.
The play is performed in Sanskrit, Prakrit and Malayalam, with musical instruments Mizhavu and Edakka providing the background music. All the characters begin the play with Nirvahana, a recollection of the past events of the story. After this, the story unfolds in a leisurely fashion with commentaries on social, philosophical, and political behaviour.
MargiMadhu Chakyar is a leading exponent of this art form.
FOLK THEATRE
India boasts of a rich tradition of folk theatre in various parts of India. The traditional folk theatre reflects the various aspects of the local lifestyle including social norms, beliefs and customs. While the Sanskrit theatre was more urban-oriented and sophisticated in its treatment of the play, folk theatre had rural roots and the rustic flavour was reflected in the dramatic style involved.
Most of the folk theatres that still exist, emerged in the period around 15th- 16th century AD with devotional themes. However, with time it started adopting love ballads and accounts of local heroes and thus adopted more secular tones. In the post-independence period, folk theatre became a popular method of dissemination of social wisdom than mere social entertainment. To better understand folks theatres across India, let us classify them into three categories:
Ritual Theatre
During the period of Bhakti movement, folk theatre became a popular means for communicating faith to God, both for the performer as well as audience. Some of the popular examples of such theatre are:
Ankia Naat
It is the traditional one-act play of Assam. It was started by the famous Vaishnava Saint Sankaradeva and his disciple Madhavdev in the 15th-16th century AD. It is performed in the style of an opera and depicts incidents from the life of Lord Krishna.
The Sutradhar or narrator is accompanied by a group of musicians known as Gayan-Bayan Mandali who play the ‘khol’ and cymbals. One of the unique features of this form of theatre is the use of masks to depict special expressions. Plays are written in Assamese-Maithili mixed language called Brajavali.
Ramlila
Ramlila is a popular folk theatre in the region of Uttar Pradesh. It is an enactment of Ramayana using songs, dances and dialogues, mainly during the period before Dussehra. It is generally performed by male actors, who perform the role of Sita as well.
Raslila
Raslila is a dance drama enactment of the adolescent love stories of Krishna and Radha, popular mainly in the region of Gujarat and even in some parts of North India.
Bhuta Aradhana
Bhuta, which means spirit, is a traditional practise of worshipping the dead ancestors, prevalent in coastal Karnataka. Kola is the chief form of Bhuta worship and it is a ritualistic theatre.
Ramman
It is a ritualistic theatre of Garhwal region of Uttarakhand. It is dedicated to Bhumiyal Devta, the local deity. It is listed in the UNESCO’s Representative list of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity. People of the Bhandari caste wear the sacred mask symbolising Narasimha (half-man and half lion). Dances are performed and various songs are sung. Stories of Lord Rama are also narrated.
Theatres of Entertainment of North, West and Eastern Part of India
This form of theatre was more secular in its narration and story-telling. They focused more on stories of love, valour and the socio-cultural traditions and were meant primarily as means of entertainment for the rural masses.
Bhavai
Bhavai is a popular folk theatre form of mainly Rajasthan. This form incorporates an extensive use of dance to narrate a series of small plays. The theme of the play is generally romantic and the performers balance number of earthen pots or brass pitchers.
The play is accompanied by a semi-classical music, played in a distinct folk style with instruments such as Jhanjhar and dholak. The sutradhar is known as Nayaka in the Bhavai theatre.
Daskathia
Daskathia is a form of folk theatre popular in Odisha. In this form, there are two narrators - Gayaka, who is the chief singer and Palia, who is the conarrator. The narration is accompanied by a dramatic music composed using a wooden musical instrument called kathia. The theme mainly revolves around Lord Shiva.
A close variant of this form is the Chhaiti Ghoda, which uses two musical instruments – dhol and mohuri – and three narrators.
Garoda
This is a popular art form of the ‘Garoda’ brahmin community of Gujarat. It uses painted pictures to narrate stories of romance and valour.
Jatra
Jatra is a popular folk theatre of Eastern India. It is generally an open-air performance that was initiated by Vaishnava Saint Chaitanya Mahaprabhu. During his travels through rural Bengal, he used the medium of Jatra to propagate the teachings of Lord Krishna. Later, variants such as Rama Jatra, Shiv Jatra and Chandi Jatra also came into existence that narrates stories of Puranic legends.
In the modern times, Jatra was used to narrate stories of secular, historical and even patriotic themes. In Odisha, a popular form of street theatre known as Sahi Jatra is prevalent.
Kariyila
It is another form of open-air theatre that is popular in the foothills of Himachal Pradesh. Generally staged during village fairs and festivals, the performance occurs through the night and comprises of a series of small plays and skits.
Maach
Maach is the folk theatre of the region of Malwa in Madhya Pradesh. Initially, it was based on mythological themes such as Mahabharata and Ramayana. Later, romantic folk tales were included into its repertoire. The unique feature of this form is the dialogues, which are delivered in the form of couplets known as Rangat Dohas.
Nautanki
An offshoot of Swang, Nautanki is the most popular form of theatre in North India, which finds mention in Abul Fazl’s Ain-i-Akbari. The plays are themed around historical, social and folk tales and delivered through dance and music. Dialogues are delivered in a lyrical fashion, accompanied by the beats of a drum called Nagada. In the later period, two schools of Nautanki seated around Kanpur and Lucknow gained importance.
Ojapali
Ojapali is a unique narrative theatre form of Assam, primarily associated with the festival of Manasha or the Serpent Goddess. The narration is a prolonged affair, with three distinct parts – Baniya Khanda, Bhatiyali Khanda and Deva Khanda. Oja is the main narrator and Palis are the members of the chorus.
Powada
When Shivaji killed his adversary Afzal Khan, a play was written lauding the heroic deeds of Shivaji, which later came to be known as Powada. They are operatic ballads depicting stories of valour and sung by the folk musicians known as Gondhalis and Shahirs. It is popular mainly in the region of Maharashtra.
Swang
Swangs are another popular source of entertainment in the region of Rajasthan and Haryana. They are mainly musical dramas, sung through verses, accompanied by the music of ektara, harmonium, sarangi, dholak and khartal. It also involves mimicry accompanied by dialogue.
Tamasha
Tamasha is form of folk theatre in the region of Maharashtra, known for its humour and erotic content. The unique feature of Tamasha is the presence of female actors, who play even the male roles. The Tamasha performances are generally accompanied by Lavani songs.
Bhand Pather
It is a folk theatre of Jammu and Kashmir. It involves contemporary social satire or even mythical stories. It is secular in outlook, although it is performed by Muslims. It has music, dance and drama.
Bhaona
It is a folk theatre of Assam, especially the Majuli Island. The idea is to spread religious and moral messages to people through entertainment and drama. It is a presentation of Ankia Naat and Vaishnavite themes are common. Sutradhar (Narrator) narrates the play and sings verses from holy texts. Songs and music are also a part of it. This folk theatre was created by Sankardeva in early 16th century.
Dashavatar
It is a popular form of drama by the farmers of Konkan region, notably Sindhudurg (Maharashtra) and North Goa. It is to honour the ten incarnations of Lord Vishnu. It has two parts: ‘poorva-ranga’(initial part) and ‘uttararanga’( second part). The second session is the main act and is based on mythological stories.
Naqal or Bhand
It is mimicry based performance, based in Punjab (Naqal) and Uttar Pradesh (Bhand). The performing artist is often called ‘Behroopiya’ or ‘Naqalchi’ (impersonator). He uses comedy, absurdities, wit and humour to get across the social or political message. It is performed by artists from Muslim Bhand Community.
Theatres of South India
When Sanskrit classical theatre started to decline in North India around the period of 8th century AD, it gained popularity in the Southern parts India. The speciality of the theatrical traditions of South India is the emphasis on dance as compared to the emphasis on music in Northern India. Some of the popular theatres of South India are:
Villu Paatu
The term ‘Villu Paatu’ means bow-song. It is a form of musical theatre popular in Kerala and some parts of Tamil Nadu, in which stories of Ramayana are narrated using bowshaped instruments.
Yakshagana
It is perhaps the oldest theatre traditions, which is prevalent till date in Karnataka and parts of Kerala. It originated in the royal courts of the Vijayanagara empire and was performed by a particular community known as Jakkula Varu.
Originally, it was largely a descriptive dance-drama enacted by a single artist. Later forms adopted further variations and became a typical dance drama. It is strongly influenced by Vaishnava Bhakti Movement.
Burra Katha
Burra Katha is a popular story-telling tradition of Andhra Pradesh. It derives its name from Burra – the percussion instrument used extensively during the performance. The performance consists of a main artist or narrator and two co-artists who provide the rhythm as well as the chorus.
Pagati Veshaalu
It is the folk tradition popular in the Telangana region as well as the Krishna district of Andhra Pradesh. It is primarily a role-playing act, revolving around a principal character known as vesham (disguise) and other sub characters.
Bayalata
It is an open-air theatre tradition of Karnataka that is performed during the worship of the local deity. The stories are also based on the love of Radha- Krishna.
Tal-Maddale
Tal is a kind of Cymbal and Maddale is a kind of drum. It is generally considered as the predecessor of Yakshagana. The play is performed while sitting and without any costumes, dance or acting. The narration is done by a Bhagavata who is aided by a group of Arthadharis. It is mainly performed in coastal Karnataka and Kerala.
Theyyam
Theyyams are performed in Kerala. It is similar to a practice in Karnataka, called Bhuta Kola. It is an open theatre and is performed in front of the local temples to mainly honour the spirit of the ancestors besides gods. Themes of Vaishnavism, Shaktism and Shaivism are now common. The actors wear elaborate headgear and colourful costumes.
Krishnanattam
It is a colourful dance-drama tradition of Kerala that originated in the mid 17th century. Based on the works of Krishna Geethi, it is a carnival that lasts for eight days, with performances in eight consecutive nights at temples narrating the life story of Lord Krishna.
Kuruvanji
Originated around 300 years ago, Kuruvanji is characterised by classical Tamil poetry and songs. The first Kuruvanji was composed by Thirukutarajappa Kaviyar. The basic theme revolves around a love-struck heroine. Kuruvanji literally means ‘fortune-teller’ who predicts the fate of the heroine. It is performed in a dance ballet form with Bharatnatyam being the principal dance form in Tamil Nadu.
MODERN INDIAN THEATRE
India’s post-medieval or modern theatre was shaped during the colonial era. Translations of both ancient Sanskrit texts and Western classics became available which gave an impetus to theatre. Works of Gotthold Ephraim Lessing and Shakespeare were adapted. Rise of cities like Calcutta (Now Kolkatta) and Madras (Now Chennai) created a need for new forms of entertainment. Thus, the Western Proscenium Style of Theatre emerged in the 18th and 19th century. Many theatres sprang up in Calcutta in 19th century like Belgachia Natyashala, Shobhabazar Natyashala, etc.
During the British era, Indians developed their own theatrical style combining the features of both Western and the Indian style. Theatres also became commercialised, with cost being imposed on viewership unlike the ancient past where theatre was mostly open to all. Common themes were social evils like dowry, caste system, religious hypocrisy and even political affairs. The British Government even imposed the Dramatic Performances Act in 1876 to counter the growing political awareness.
Parsi Theatres were famous in Western India during 1850s-1920s, with plays being written in regional languages like Gujarati and Marathi. Colourful backdrops and music were essential. The themes were romance, humour, melodrama, etc. From 1930s, with the advent of cinema, many Parsi producers went into film-making.
Regional theatres of Bengal, Maharashtra etc, also gained prominence. Rabindranath Tagore was a celebrated playwright. He wrote his first play at the age of 20 – Valmiki Pratibha. His famous works are Raktakarabi (Red Oleanders), Chitrangada, Post-Office, etc. His themes included nationalism, spirituality, socio-political situation, etc. Other noted personalities were Prasanna Kumar Thakur, Girishchandra Ghosh, Dinabandhu Mitra (Nildarpan), etc.
In 1943, lndian People’s Theatre Association (ITPA) was formed as a cultural wing of Communist Party. Although it was disbanded in 1947, it played an important role in further development of theatre. They wrote plays on various social themes like Bengal Famines, etc. Notable personalities associated with ITPA were Balraj Sahni, Prithviraj Kapoor, Bijon Bhattacharya, Ritwik Ghatak, Utpal Dutt, etc. IPTA now exists in Chattisgarh, Punjab and West Bengal.
Prithvi Theatre was established in 1944, by Prithviraj Kapoor. It was a moving theatre with an entourage of 150 artists and held more than 2000 plays. It was only in 1978 when a permanent theatre was opened in Mumbai and it still exists.
In 1952, Sangeet Natak Akademi was established for promoting performing arts including theatre, giving further impetus to the development of theatre in India. National School of Drama also contributed in producing great theatre personalities.
Kalakshetra Manipur was formed by Heisnam Kanhailal in 1969 in Manipur to keep the traditional theatre alive. Ratan Thiyam established the famous Chorus Repertory Theatre in 1976.
Samasa (Sami Venkatadri Iyer) and Adya Rangacharya were noted Kannada dramatist and playwright. Kuppali Venkatappa Puttappa, better known as Kuvempu is another noted actor-playwright of Karnataka. Other eminent theatre personalities are Subramanya Bharathiar of Tamil Nadu, Veeresalingam Pantulu of Andhra Pradesh. Sreekandan Nair of Kerala, Bhartendu Harishchandra and Jaishankar Prasad.
BV Karanth is known for his contribution to Andhra, Karnataka and Madhya Pradesh theatre. KV Subbanna of Karnataka formed the acclaimed NINASAM theatre group and was also a winner of Ramon Magsaysay award.
Other noted modern personalities are Indira Parthasarathy, Girish Karnad, Habib Tanvir, Vijay Tendulkar, Badal Sarkar, Vijaya Mehta, Dharamvir Bharati, Mohan Rakesh, Chandrashekhar Kambar and P Lankesh.