Find out how to access preview-only content ChapterAnimal, Plant, and Microbial Toxins pp 379-394Some Pharmacological Properties of Palythoatoxin Isolated from the Zoanthid, Palythoa tuberculosa * Final gross prices may vary according to local VAT. During the course of the survey of causes of ciguatera poisoning, a pharmacologically very active substance was obtained from the zoanthid (Coelenteratd), Palythoa tuberculosa Esper (Kimuraet al., 1972; Kimura and Hashimoto, 1973) found in the digestive tract of a filefish, Alutera scripta, one most widely re puted as ciguatoxic in the tropical and subtropical regions (Hashimoto et al. 1969). This substance has been found to be selectively distributed in female polyps of the zoanthid, especially concentrated in their matured stage (Kimura et al., 1972). The lethal dose of this substance has been estimated to be 0.6 µg/ kg in mice when intraperitoneally injected (Kimura and Hashimoto, 1973). This toxicity far exceeds that of tetrodotoxin or saxitoxin, and may even exceed that of batrachotoxin, the most potent of natural toxins of low molecular weight ever known (Daly et al., 1965).
This substance, here designated as palythoatoxin, has been reported to be very similar, if not identical, to palytoxin previously isolated by Moore and Scheuer (1971) from closely related Palythoa species (P. vestitus and P. toxica) (Kimura and Hashimoto, 1973). The latter reportedly has an estimated molecular weight of about 3300, is not a polypeptide or a protein nor does it contain sugar, and has lethal doses of 0.4 µg/kg (i.p.) and 0.15 µg/kg O-v.) in mice (Moore and Scheuer, 1971; see also Sheikh, 1970). Share this content on Facebook Share this content on Twitter Share this content on LinkedIn Some Pharmacological Properties of Palythoatoxin Isolated from the Zoanthid, Palythoa tuberculosa Animal, Plant, and Microbial Toxins Volume 2 Chemistry, Pharmacology, and Immunology Plenum Press, New York To view the rest of this content please follow the download PDF link above. ChapterIsland, Ocean and Deep-Sea Biology Volume 152 of the series Developments in Hydrobiology
pp 191-198Semper’s (zoanthid) larvae: pelagic life, parentage and other problems Semper’s larvae were obtained from <300 out of ~1800 plankton tows taken in the world’s oceans (1964–1993). Zoanthellae (larvae of Sphenopidae) occurred at 217 stations and zoanthinae (larvae of Zoanthidae) at 86, the two larval types showing distributions clearly delimited by a minimum sea temperature (~22 °C for zoanthellae, ~l8 °C for zoanthinae; a statistically significant difference, P<0.001). Length of formalin-fixed zoanthellae was ~2–8.6 mm and of zoanthinae ~1.5–5.9 mm. Endodermal zooxanthellae were present in 9/24 zoanthinae but in no zoanthellae (of 19). Three larvae contained an endo-commensal/parasitic amphipod. Septa were externally visible in larger zoanthinae and were counted in transverse sections of other larvae, a majority of which (both kinds) had 12 septa, the normal maximum. The pattern was brachycnemic in 40/43 larvae and anomalous (but nonmacrocnemic) in three.
If macrocnemic genera reproduce by Semper’s larvae, they should have been represented in such a large sample. The distribution of adult Epizoanthus was examined: many species are deep sea (recorded down to ~5000 m) but shallow-water species are relatively plentiful in, for example, the Adriatic and North Seas. No Semper’s larva has ever been recorded from either. Some Parazoanthus species also occur in shallow water, especially associated with western Atlantic reef sponges. If they produce Semper’s larvae, these have never been found. It is probable that macrocnemic zoanthids settle from planulae that do not develop into recognizable zoanthellae or zoanthinae. Semper’s (zoanthid) larvae: pelagic life, parentage and other problems Island, Ocean and Deep-Sea Biology Proceedings of the 34th European Marine Biology Symposium, held in Ponta Delgada (Azores), Portugal, 13–17 September 1999 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht Freshwater & Marine Ecology
Energy, Utilities & Environment J. M. N. Azevedo A. M. Frias MartinsZoanthids, also called zoas, button polyps or colonial anemones, are a hardy and diverse Order of coral that are suitable for beginner, intermediate and advanced aquarists. They are tolerant of a range of aquarium conditions, come in unbelievable bright color morphs and many of them grow very quickly. There are three general growth forms associated with this order. Some species have freely growing separate polyps. Other species have polyps that are joined loosely at the base by a sliver of tissue called a stolon, whereas the third growth form of zoanthids have polyps that are actually integrated deep into a fleshy tissue called the coenchyme. That really only matters if you are an uber aquarium geek or a taxonomist. From the perspective of zoanthid care in the aquarium, there really isn’t much of a difference but if you see corals listed as zoanthus, palythoa, or protopalythoa, just know that the differences, among other things, have to do with whether or not the individual colonial polyps are attached to each other at the base.
If you really do want to learn more about the differences between the classifications, you can read more about that here. The majority of zoanthids have symbiotic photosynthetic zooxanthellae (I dare you to try and say that three times quickly) and are therefore best kept with at least moderate aquarium lighting. Some of the more brightly colored morphs will tolerate even intense lighting from metal halide or newer generation LED lights if acclimated properly. Most species are capable of actively capturing prey. For fastest growth of these coral, it is recommended that you feed them periodically with an appropriately sized food, although feeding is not usually required. Target feeding these coral polyps is fairly straightforward, you simply place food particles that are the right size as close to the center of the polyp as you can. The Polyps will fold inward, the mouth will open, and the food will go inside. This is the fastest and best way to grow these corals.
Don’t forget that corals are animals–and animals like to eat. Yes, they can and do get some of their energy from the symbiotic zooxanthellae that live inside their tissue, but that is only half of the story. You will be rewarded with strong growth if you feed them regularly. If your zoas won’t eat, try changing up the size and type of food you are offering. Borneman reported that some zoas would only respond to certain food prey items. Some of the more rare and delicate zoanthids may take a couple of days to open up after transportation to your home. If you just bought your polyps, don’t worry if they won’t open up right away. However, if your polyps were previously open and have recently closed up, this should be taken as a serious sign of a water parameters issue. The first things I would check are salinity and pH. In my experience, zoas will close up if there are swings in salinity. I originally read about this in the book: Practical Coral Farming. You will find zoas for sale at any respectable local or online fish store.
Prices will vary for just a few dollars ($5-10) for a small frag all the way up to the max you will want to pay for a high-end designer coral with a fancy name like Orange bam bam zoanthids or purple hornet zoanthids, which can sell for $100 or more for every coral polyp. One of the most fun aspects of keeping zoanthids in your saltwater aquarium is to collect polyps from the hottest color morphs. They have ridiculous sounding names that seem to make perfect sense once you see them. If you’re just getting started, here is a list of some of the names you can start with to begin your search to find the perfect zoanthid for your saltwater aquarium. To see what some of these zoanthids look like, take a look at this eye-candy video with a ranking of the top 10 most popular zoanthids. Over the last few years, there has been a bit of a zoanthids collector mania, driving up the prices of rare zoanthid color morphs. These rare zoanthids go by names like bubble buster, tazer, tyree space monster and bloodshots.
These corals are for the ultimate collectors with a lot of money, dreams of coral propagation and an I gotta have it gene. These corals are so expensive and so popular there are forum threads that discuss the street value of these corals. You can’t make that stuff up. Several species of zoas produce a toxic chemical, called palytoxin, and so individual specimens should be handled with extreme care. Palytoxin can cause neurological damage if it gets inside of a cut, your eyes or in your nose or mouth. Always wear protective gear when handling zoanthids, including gloves and goggles. Not every variety of zoanthid creates palytoxin, but be sure to let friends and family members know about it, just in case you ever run into an issue. A great way to do that is to document the issue in the back of your reef journal and to let your family know it is there. One disease that seems to disproportionately impact zoanthids is something called zoa pox or zoanthid pox. Zoa pox is the name given to the zoanthid disease characterized by tiny growths on the side of the affected zoas.