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HSLS:09 is the fifth and only ongoing study in the series of school-based longitudinal studies. All of these studies deal with the transition of American youth from secondary schooling to subsequent education and work roles. The four prior studies are described below; the five studies are depicted in the figure below.NELS:88 The National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88) was launched in the spring of the 1987-88 school year with an initial sample of 24,599 participating eighth graders, one parent of each student participant, two of their teachers, and their school principal. Students were tested in reading, mathematics, science, and social studies. Two years later, in the spring of 1990, a subsample of base year participants and nonparticipants was followed and resurveyed, when most cohort members were sophomores but others were dropouts or were in other grades. The sample was freshened to represent tenth graders in the United States in the spring of 1990, and students, teachers and school principals were surveyed as well. In 1992 the second follow-up repeated the student and dropout surveys, carried out freshening to ensure a representative senior cohort, repeated the parent and teacher surveys, and also followed a subsample of students who had been excluded from the base year (students who were deemed unable, owing to disabilities or language barriers, to complete the study instruments) to determine how they, and their outcomes, differed from students who had been included. The NELS:88 school and student residential data were also mapped to external sources, such as 1990 Census variables, to provide community-level or ecological variables. High school transcripts were also collected for NELS:88 sample members, as had been done for a subsample of the HS&B sophomore cohort a decade before. In 1994, the first out-of-school follow-up took place. The NELS:88 cohort was resurveyed again in the spring of 2000, and postsecondary transcripts were collected in the fall of 2000.With the sophomore cohort, information became available to study the relationship between early high school experiences and students' subsequent educational experiences in high school and thereafter. For the first time, national data were available showing students' academic growth over time and how family, community, school and classroom factors promoted or inhibited student learning. The HS&B school sample was large and diverse enough to permit investigations of the ways that public and private schools differ in their organization, curriculum, climate and outcomes. The HS&B test battery also permitted researchers to measure cognitive growth in the course of high school, as well as, through the HS&B questionnaires and transcript data, the correlates of growth. Moreover, data were now available to analyze the school experiences of students who later dropped out of high school. These data became a rich resource for policy makers and researchers over the next decade and provided an empirical base to inform the debates of the educational reform movement that began in the early 1980s. Both cohorts of HS&B were resurveyed in 1982, 1984, and 1986, and their postsecondary transcripts collected. The sophomore cohort was also resurveyed in 1992, with a postsecondary transcript update in 1993. Postsecondary issues addressed by HS&B's later rounds include the following:
NLS-72 NCES's longitudinal research with high school students began with the National Longitudinal Study of the High School Class of 1972 (NLS-72), with a sample of over 21,000 high school seniors. With this study, NCES began providing longitudinal data to educational policymakers and researchers that linked educational experiences with later outcomes such as early labor market experiences and postsecondary education enrollment and attainment. In 1968 the then-U.S. Office of Education awarded a contract to the Research Triangle Institute to develop a new study that would begin with a survey of 1972 high school seniors. To conduct intensive studies of students from disadvantaged backgrounds, NLS-72 oversampled schools in low -income areas and schools with significant minority enrollments. The cohort was resurveyed four times (in 1973, 1974, 1979, and 1986). Cognitive tests and questionnaires were administered in the base year, questionnaires were administered in subsequent years, and a postsecondary education transcript study was conducted in 1984.While it is known that exposure to traffic-related air pollution causes an enormous global toll on human health, neurobiological underpinnings therein remain elusive. The study addresses this gap in knowledge.
A total of 100 MRI acquisitions were obtained in the current study. Twenty-five adult participants were tested immediately pre- and post-exposure to diesel exhaust (DE) and immediately pre- and post-exposure to filtered air (FA) for comparison. All participants were recruited through posters in the community, online notices, and e-mail notifications to the Vancouver Coastal Health Staff List-Serve.
The study employed a controlled, double-blinded crossover design at the Air Pollution Exposure Lab. Each participant was tested in both the control condition (exposure to FA) and the experimental condition (exposure to DE) with four data acquisitions: (1) pre-FA; (2) post-FA; (3) pre-DE and (4) post-DE. The order of exposure to FA and DE was randomized and counterbalanced across participants, with a two-week delay between conditions. Both participants and individuals involved in collecting the MRI data were blinded to the condition, a technique that has been shown not only nominal but also effective [11].
In the present study, we focused on putative effects of TRAP on the default mode network (DMN), a set of inter-connected cortical brain regions in which activity is maximal at rest or during internal thought engagement. We focused on the DMN, given the preferential vulnerability of this network to aging [25, 26], toxicity [27], and disease states [28, 29].
Our study provides the first evidence in humans, from a controlled experiment, of altered brain network connectivity acutely induced by air pollution. The use of this model is important because it is not subject to potential confounding by variables correlated to exposure, a vexing concern common to observational studies. The precise functional impact of the changes seen in fMRI are unknown but are likely modest given the small magnitude of change, as expected with such limited exposure. That said, real-world exposures are often more persistent, particularly in regions of the world for which levels such as those we use are not uncommon. It is hypothesized that chronic exposure is effectively a series of short-term exposures (only one of which our participants were exposed to) that ultimately leads to accumulated deficits through a stress on allostatic load [30, 31], but whether or not this applies to pollution in the neurocognitive realm, while hypothesized [32], requires further study. That being said, our results are consistent with a study of chronic air pollution exposure in Germans [33].
The current study represents the first controlled human exposure to diesel exhaust investigation using functional MRI. The results of an order-randomized double-blind crossover study of diesel exhaust and control air in healthy adults revealed immediate pollution-attributable declines in default mode network functional connectivity. Change in policy surrounding air pollution exposure has long been driven by a combination of observational and experimental evidence, which together are most compelling especially in the face of interests aggressively opposed to regulation that foster improved air quality. In spite of volumes of existing evidence regarding adverse effects of air pollution, history demonstrates that implicating additional organ systems can augment the already strong evidence and effectively apply further pressure for emissions control in areas lagging in that regard. This data may be informative therein, while deepening the evidence base for direct evidence of neurocognitive effects due to acute exposure to TRAP. As the changes in cognition we have demonstrated may put individuals at risk for impaired vocational performance, this is an important consideration for public health.Phi Kappa Phi Study Abroad Grants are designed to