Masturbation

Masturbation is the [sexual stimulation] of one's own [genitals] for [sexual arousal] or other sexual pleasure, usually to the point of [orgasm].[1] The stimulation may involve hands, [fingers], everyday objects, [sex toys] such as [vibrators], or combinations of these.[1][2] [Mutual masturbation] (mutual manual stimulation of the genitals between partners) can be a substitute for [sexual penetration]. Studies have found that masturbation is frequent in humans of both sexes and all ages, although there is variation. Various medical and psychological benefits have been attributed to a healthy attitude toward sexual activity in general and to masturbation in particular. No [causal] relationship is known between masturbation and any form of mental or physical disorder.[3]

Masturbation has been depicted in art since prehistoric times and is mentioned and discussed in very early writings. In the 18th and 19th centuries, some European theologians and physicians described it as "heinous", "deplorable", and "hideous", but during the 20th century these [taboos] generally declined. There has been an increase in discussion and portrayal of masturbation in art, popular music, television, films, and literature. Today, religions vary in their [views] of masturbation; some view it as a spiritually detrimental practice, some see it as not spiritually detrimental, and others take a [situational] view. The legal status of masturbation has also varied through history and masturbation in public is illegal in most countries.[4]

In the [Western world], masturbation in private or with a partner is generally considered a normal and healthy part of sexual enjoyment. [Animal masturbation] has been observed in many species, both in the wild and in captivity.[5][6][7]

Etymology

The English word masturbation was introduced in the 18th century, based on the Latin verb masturbari, alongside the more technical and slightly earlier onanism. The [Latin] verb masturbari is of [uncertain origin]. Suggested derivations include an unattested word for [penis], *mazdo, cognate with [Greek] mézea μέζεα, "genitals", or alternatively a corruption of an unattested *manusturpare ("to defile with the hand"), by association with turbare "to disturb".[8][9]

Terminology

While masturbation is the formal word for this practice, many other expressions are in common use. Terms such as playing with yourself, pleasuring oneself and slang such as wanking,[10] jerking off,[11] and frigging are common. Self-abuse and self-pollution[12] were common in early modern times and are still found in modern dictionaries. A large variety of other [euphemisms] and [dysphemisms] exist which describe masturbation. For a list of terms, see the entry for masturbate in [Wiktionary].

Techniques

Masturbation involves touching, pressing, rubbing or massaging a person's [genital] area, either with the fingers or against an object such as a [pillow]; inserting fingers or an object into the [vagina] or [anus] (see [anal masturbation]); and stimulating the penis or vulva with an electric [vibrator], which may also be inserted into the vagina or anus. It may also involve touching, rubbing, or pinching the [nipples] or other [erogenous zones] while masturbating. Both sexes sometimes apply [lubricating] substances to intensify sensation.

Reading or viewing [pornography], [sexual fantasies], or other erotic stimuli may lead to a desire for sexual release such as by masturbation.

Some people get [sexual pleasure] by inserting objects, such as [urethral sounds], into the [urethra] (the tube through which urine and, in men, semen, flows),[13] a practice known as [urethral play] or "sounding".[14] Other objects such as ball point pens and thermometers are sometimes used, although this practice can lead to injury and/or infection.[15] Some people masturbate by using [machines] that simulate intercourse.

Men and women may masturbate until they are [close to orgasm], stop for a while to reduce excitement, and then resume masturbating. They may repeat this cycle multiple times. This "stop and go" build-up, known as "[edging]", can achieve even stronger orgasms.[16] Rarely, people quit stimulation just before orgasm to retain the heightened energy that normally comes down after orgasm.[17]

Male

The most common masturbation technique among males is to hold the penis with a loose fist and then to move the hand up and down the shaft. This type of stimulation is typically all that is required to achieve [orgasm] and [ejaculation]. The speed of the hand motion will vary.

Male masturbation techniques may differ between males who have been [circumcised] and those who have not. Some techniques which may work for one individual can be difficult or uncomfortable for another. For males who have not been circumcised, stimulation of the penis typically comes from the "pumping" of the [foreskin], whereby the foreskin is held and slid up and down over the [glans], which, depending on foreskin length, is completely or partially covered and then uncovered in a rapid motion. The outer foreskin glides smoothly over the inner foreskin. The glans itself may widen and lengthen as the stimulation continues, becoming slightly darker in colour, while the [gliding action] of the foreskin reduces friction. This technique may also be used by some circumcised men who have sufficient excess skin remaining from their circumcision.

For circumcised males, on whom the glans is mostly or completely uncovered, this technique creates more direct contact between the hand and the glans. To avoid friction, irritation and soreness from this resulting friction, some may prefer to use a personal lubricant, [masturbation cream] or saliva.

The shaft skin can also be slid back and forth with just the index finger and thumb wrapped around the penis. A variation on this is to place the fingers and thumb on the penis as if playing a flute, and then shuttle them back and forth. Lying face down on a comfortable surface such as a mattress or pillow, the penis can be rubbed against it. This technique may include the use of a [simulacrum], or [artificial vagina].

[Prostate massage] is one other technique used for sexual stimulation, often in order to reach [orgasm]. The prostate is sometimes referred to as the "male [G-spot]" or P-spot.[18] Some men can achieve orgasm through stimulation of the prostate gland, by stimulating it using a well-lubricated finger or dildo inserted through the anus into the [rectum], and men who report the sensation of prostate stimulation often give descriptions similar to females' accounts of G-spot stimulation.[19][20] Prostate stimulation can produce stronger and more powerful orgasms than solely penile stimulation.[19] Stimulating the prostate from outside, via pressure on the [perineum], can be pleasurable as well.

[Anal masturbation] without any prostate stimulation, with fingers or otherwise, is also one other technique which some men enjoy. Since the muscles of the anus contract during [orgasm], the presence of an object holding the [sphincter] open can strengthen the sensation of the contractions and intensify orgasm.[21] The practice may be pleasurable because of the large number of [nerve endings] in the [anal area], and because of the added stimulation gained from stretching the [anal sphincter muscles] while inserting the finger. A good quality [personal lubricant] is advisable to both increase the pleasurable sensation and aid insertion. Some people prefer to simply stimulate the outer ring of the anus, while others will follow this by inserting one or more fingers.

There are many other variations on male masturbation techniques. Men may also rub or massage the glans, the rim of the glans, and the [frenular delta]. Some men place both hands directly on their penis during masturbation, while others may use their free hand to [fondle] their [testicles], [nipples], or other parts of their body. The nipples are erogenous zones, and vigorous stimulation of them during masturbation usually causes the penis to become erect more quickly than it would otherwise. Some may keep their hand stationary while pumping into it with pelvic thrusts in order to simulate the motions of [sexual intercourse]. Some may lay in the [prone position] and rub their genitals against the bed sheet or other surface, a technique called prone masturbation.[22] Others may also use vibrators and other sexual devices more commonly associated with female masturbation. A few extremely flexible males can reach and stimulate their penis with their tongue or lips, and so perform [autofellatio].

A somewhat controversial ejaculation control technique is to put pressure on the perineum, about halfway between the [scrotum] and the anus, just before ejaculating.[citation needed] This can, however, redirect semen into the bladder (referred to as [retrograde ejaculation]).

Female

Female masturbation involves the stroking or rubbing of a woman's [vulva], especially her [clitoris], with an [index] or [middle fingers], or both. Sometimes one or more fingers may be inserted into the vagina to stroke its frontal wall where the [G-spot] may be located.[23] Masturbation aids such as a vibrator, [dildo] or [Ben Wa balls] can also be used to stimulate the vagina and clitoris. Many women caress their breasts or stimulate a nipple with the free hand and anal stimulation is also enjoyed by some. Personal lubricant is sometimes used during masturbation, especially when [penetration] is involved, but this is not universal and many women find their [natural lubrication] sufficient.

Common positions include lying on back or face down, sitting, [squatting], [kneeling] or standing. In a bath or shower a female may direct tap water at her clitoris and vulva. Lying face down one may use the hands, one may straddle a pillow, the corner or edge of the bed, a partner's leg or some scrunched-up clothing and "[hump]" the vulva and clitoris against it. Standing up, a chair, the corner of an item of furniture, or even a washing machine can be used to stimulate the clitoris through the labia and clothing. Some masturbate only using pressure applied to the clitoris without direct contact, for example by pressing the palm or ball of the hand against [underwear] or other clothing. In the 1920s, [Havelock Ellis] reported that turn-of-the-century seamstresses using treadle-operated sewing machines could achieve orgasm by sitting near the edge of their chairs.[24]

Women can stimulate themselves sexually by crossing their legs tightly and clenching the muscles in their legs, creating pressure on the genitals. This can potentially be done in public without observers noticing. Thoughts, fantasies, and memories of previous instances of arousal and orgasm can produce sexual excitation. Some women can orgasm spontaneously by force of will alone, although this may not strictly qualify as masturbation as no physical stimulus is involved.[25][26]

Mutual masturbation

Mutual masturbation involves two or more people who sexually stimulate each other, usually with the hands. It can be practiced by people of any [sexual orientation], and can be part of other sexual activity. It may be used as [foreplay], or as an alternative to sexual penetration. When used as an alternative to penile-vaginal penetration, the goal may be to preserve [virginity] or to avoid risk of pregnancy.[27][28]

Mutual masturbation can be practiced in pairs or groups with or without actually touching another person for example:

Frequency, age, and sex

Frequency of masturbation is determined by many factors, e.g., one's resistance to [sexual tension], [hormone] levels influencing [sexual arousal], sexual habits, peer influences, health and one's attitude to masturbation formed by culture; E. Heiby and J. Becker examined the latter.[30] Medical causes have also been associated with masturbation.[31][32][33]

Different studies have found that masturbation is frequent in humans. [Alfred Kinsey's] 1950s studies on US population have shown that 92% of men and 62% of women have masturbated during their lifespan.[26] Similar results have been found in a 2007 British national probability survey. It was found that, between individuals aged 16 to 44, 95% of men and 71% of women masturbated at some point in their lives. 73% of men and 37% of women reported masturbating in the four weeks before their interview, while 53% of men and 18% of women reported masturbating in the previous seven days.[34]

The Merck Manual says that 97% of men and 80% of women have masturbated and that, generally speaking, males masturbate more than females.[35]

Masturbation is considered normal when performed by children,[36][37][38] even in early infancy.[31] In 2009, the Sheffield NHS Health Trust issued a pamphlet called "Pleasure" which discussed the health benefits of masturbation. This was done in response to data and experience from the other EU member states to reduce teen pregnancy and [STIs (STDs)], and to promote healthy habits.[39]

In the book Human Sexuality: Diversity in Contemporary America, by Strong, Devault and Sayad, the authors point out, "A baby boy may laugh in his crib while playing with his erect penis". "Baby girls sometimes move their bodies rhythmically, almost violently, appearing to experience orgasm." Italian gynecologists Giorgio Giorgi and Marco Siccardi observed via [ultrasound] a female fetus possibly masturbating and having what appeared to be an orgasm.[40]

Popular belief asserts that individuals of either sex who are not in sexually active relationships tend to masturbate more frequently than those who are; however, much of the time this is not true as masturbation alone or with a partner is often a feature of a relationship. Contrary to this belief, several studies actually reveal a positive correlation between the frequency of masturbation and the frequency of intercourse. A study has reported a significantly higher rate of masturbation in gay men and women who were in a relationship.[34][41][42][43]

Coon and Mitterer stated: "Approximately 70 percent of married women and men masturbate at least occasionally."[44][45]

Evolutionary utility

Female masturbation alters conditions in the vagina, cervix and uterus, in ways that can alter the chances of conception from intercourse, depending on the timing of the masturbation. A woman's orgasm between one minute before and 45 minutes after insemination favors the chances of that sperm reaching her egg. If, for example, she has had intercourse with more than one male, such an orgasm can increase the likelihood of a pregnancy by one of them.[46][47] Female masturbation can also provide protection against cervical infections by increasing the acidity of the cervical mucus and by moving debris out of the cervix.[47]

In males, masturbation flushes out old sperm with low [motility] from the male's genital tract. The next ejaculate then contains more fresh sperm, which have higher chances of achieving conception during intercourse. If more than one male has intercourse with a female, the sperm with the highest motility will [compete] more effectively.[48][49][50]

Health effects

The [medical consensus] is that masturbation is a medically healthy and [psychologically normal] habit.[51][52][53][54][55][56][57][58] According to the [Merck Manual of Diagnosis and Therapy], "It is considered abnormal only when it inhibits partner-oriented behavior, is done in public, or is sufficiently compulsive to cause distress."[59]

In the US, masturbation was a diagnosable psychological condition until [DSM] II (1968).[60] The [American Medical Association] consensually declared masturbation as normal in 1972.[61]

Masturbation does not deplete one's body of energy[62] or produce [premature ejaculation].[63]

General benefits

Sex therapists will sometimes recommend that female patients take time to masturbate to orgasm, for example to help improve sexual health and relationships, to help determine what is erotically pleasing to them, and because mutual masturbation can lead to more satisfying sexual relationships and added intimacy.[64][65]

It is held in many mental health circles that masturbation can relieve [depression] and lead to a higher sense of [self-esteem].[66] Masturbation can also be particularly useful in relationships where one partner wants more sex than the other – in which case masturbation provides a balancing effect and thus a more harmonious relationship.[67]

Mutual masturbation, the act by which two or more partners stimulate themselves in the presence of each other, allows a couple to reveal the "map to [their] pleasure centers". By watching a partner masturbate, one finds out the methods they use to please him- or herself, allowing each partner to learn exactly how the other enjoys being touched. Intercourse, by itself, is often inconvenient or impractical at times to provide sufficient sexual release for many people. Mutual masturbation allows couples to enjoy each other and obtain sexual release as often as they need but without the inconveniences and risks associated with sex.[67]

In 2003, an Australian research team led by Graham Giles of [The Cancer Council Australia][68] found that males masturbating frequently had a lower probability to develop [prostate cancer]. Men who averaged five or more ejaculations weekly in their 20s had significantly lower risk. However they could not show a direct causation. The study also indicated that increased ejaculation through masturbation rather than intercourse would be more helpful as intercourse is associated with diseases (STDs) that may increase the [risk of cancer] instead. However, this benefit may be age related. A 2008 study concluded that frequent ejaculation between the ages of 20 and 40 may be correlated with higher risk of developing prostate cancer. On the other hand, frequent ejaculation in one's 50s was found to be correlated with a lower such risk in this same study.[69]

A study published in 1997 found an inverse association between death from coronary heart disease and frequency of orgasm even given the risk that myocardial ischaemia and myocardial infarction can be triggered by sexual activity.

The association between frequency of orgasm and all cause mortality was also examined using the midpoint of each response category recorded as number of orgasms per year. The age adjusted odds ratio for an increase of 100 orgasms per year was 0.64 (0.44 to 0.95).

That is, a difference in mortality appeared between any two subjects when one subject ejaculated at around two times per week more than the other. Assuming a broad range average of between 3 and 5 ejaculations per week for healthy males, this would mean 5 to 7 ejaculations per week. This is consistent with a 2003 Australia article on the benefits against prostate cancer. The strength of these correlations increased with increasing frequency of ejaculation.[70]

A 2008 study at [Tabriz Medical University] found ejaculation reduces swollen nasal blood vessels, freeing the airway for normal breathing. The mechanism is through stimulation of the sympathetic nervous system and is long lasting. The study author suggests "It can be done [from] time-to-time to alleviate the congestion and the patient can adjust the number of intercourses or masturbations depending on the severity of the symptoms."[71]

Solo masturbation is a sexual activity that is free of risk of [sexually transmitted infections]. With two or more participants, the risk of sexually transmitted infections, while not eliminated, is much less than with most forms of [penetrative sex]. Support for such a view, and for making masturbation part of the American sex education curriculum, led to the dismissal of [US Surgeon General] [Joycelyn Elders] during the [Clinton administration]. Some [EU Nations] promote masturbation in their sex education curricula.

Sexual climax, from masturbation or otherwise, leaves one in a relaxed and contented state. This is frequently followed closely by drowsiness and sleep – particularly when one masturbates in bed.[72][73][74]

Some professionals consider masturbation to function as a cardiovascular workout.[75] Though research is still as yet scant, those suffering from cardiovascular disorders (particularly those recovering from myocardial infarction, or heart attacks) should resume physical activity (including sexual intercourse and masturbation) gradually and with the frequency and rigor which their physical status will allow. This limitation can serve as encouragement to follow through with physical therapy sessions to help improve endurance. In general, real sex slightly increases energy consumption, according to a study published in the [New England Journal of Medicine].[76][77]

Both sex and masturbation lower [blood pressure]. A small study demonstrated lower blood pressure in persons who had recently masturbated compared to those with no proximate sexual activity.[78]

Risks

Those who insert objects as aids to masturbation risk them becoming stuck (e.g. as [rectal foreign bodies]). Men and women can fall prey to this problem. A woman went into a German hospital with two pencils in her bladder, having pierced her urethra after inserting them during masturbation.[79]

Pregnancy

Solo masturbation, or masturbation involving individuals of the same sex, cannot produce pregnancy. Masturbation involving both a man and a woman (see mutual masturbation) can result in pregnancy only if semen contacts the vulva.

Problems for males

A man whose penis has suffered a blunt trauma, severe bend or other injury during intercourse or masturbation may, rarely, sustain a [penile fracture][80][81][82] or suffer from [Peyronie's disease].[83] [Phimosis] is "a contracted foreskin (that) may cause trouble by hurting when an attempt is made to pull the foreskin back".[84] In these cases, any energetic manipulation of the penis can be problematic.

A small percentage of men suffer from [postorgasmic illness syndrome] (POIS), which can cause severe muscle pain throughout the body and other symptoms immediately following ejaculation, whether due to masturbation or partnered sex. The symptoms last for up to a week.[85][86][87] Some doctors speculate that the frequency of POIS "in the population may be greater than has been reported in the academic literature",[88] and that many POIS sufferers are undiagnosed.[89]

Compulsive masturbation

Compulsive masturbation and other compulsive behaviors can be signs of an emotional problem, which may need to be addressed by a mental health specialist.[90] As with any "nervous habit", it is more helpful to consider the causes of compulsive behavior, rather than try to repress masturbation.[91]

Masturbation among adolescents contributes to them developing a sense of mastery over sexual impulses, and it has a role in the physical and emotional development of prepubescents and pubescents.[92] Babies and toddlers will play with their genitals in much the same way as they play with their ears or toes. If such play becomes all-consuming, it may be necessary to look for an underlying cause of this, such as the child being tense and in need of comfort, or that others may be overreacting and thus reinforcing the habit. It could be caused by a low-grade urinary tract or yeast infection, or the child may be overstimulated and in need of soothing, or indeed understimulated and bored. Alongside many other factors, such as medical evidence, age-inappropriate sexual knowledge, sexualized play or aggression, and precocious or seductive behavior, excessive masturbation may alternatively be an indicator of [sexual abuse].[93][94]

History and society

The [sexual] stimulation of one's own [genitals] has been [interpreted variously by different religions], the subject of legislation, social controversy, activism, as well as intellectual study in [sexology]. Social views regarding masturbation taboo have varied greatly in different cultures, and over history.

There are depictions of male and female masturbation in prehistoric [rock paintings] around the world. From the earliest records, the ancient [Sumerians] had very relaxed attitudes toward sex.[95] The Sumerians widely believed that masturbation enhanced sexual potency, both for men and for women,[95] and they frequently engaged in it, both alone and with their partners.[95] Men would often use puru-oil, a special oil probably mixed with pulverized [iron ore] intended to enhance friction.[95] Masturbation was also an act of creation and, in [Sumerian mythology], the god [Enki] was believed to have created the [Tigris] and [Euphrates] rivers by masturbating and ejaculating into their empty [riverbeds].[96] The [ancient Egyptians] also regarded masturbation by a deity as an act of creation; the god [Atum] was believed to have created the universe by masturbating to ejaculation.

The [ancient Greeks] also regarded masturbation as a normal and healthy substitute for other forms of sexual pleasure.[97] [Diogenes] is said to have masturbated in public, which was considered scandalous.[98] On the indecency of him masturbating in public he would say, "If only it were as easy to banish hunger by rubbing my belly."[98]

Among non-western perspectives on the matter, some teachers and practitioners of Traditional Chinese medicine, Taoist meditative and martial arts say that masturbation can cause a lowered energy level in men. Within the [African Congo Basin], the [Aka], [Ngandu], [Lesi], [brbs], and [Ituri] [ethnic groups] all lack a word for masturbation in their languages and are confused by the concept of masturbation.[99]

Perspectives within the [Abrahamic religions] may be connected with [biblical sources] that are interpreted as inveighing against masturbation[citation needed].

Development of the contemporary Western world view

18th century

Onanism is a hybrid term which combines the proper noun, Onan, with the suffix, -ism.[100] Notions of self-pollution, impurity and uncleanness were increasingly associated with various other sexual vices and crimes of the body (such fornication, sodomy, adultery, incest and obscene language); in reaction to the 17th-century libertine culture, middle-class moralists increasingly campaigned for a reformation of manners and a stricter regulation of the body. Paradoxically, a crime that was secret and private became a popular and fashionable topic. Moreover, writers tended to focus more on the perceived links with mental and physical illnesses that were deemed to be associated with the sense of moral outrage. Attention increasingly shifted to the prevention and cure of this illness which perilously sapped men of their virility[101]

The first use of the word "onanism" to consistently and specifically refer to masturbation is a pamphlet first distributed in London in 1716 and attributed[102] to Dutch theologian Dr. [Balthazar Bekker], titled "Onania, or the Heinous Sin of self-Pollution, And All Its Frightful Consequences, In Both Sexes, Considered: With Spiritual and Physical Advice To Those Who Have Already Injured Themselves By This Abominable Practice." The Online Etymology Dictionary, however, claims the earliest known use of onanism occurred in 1727. In 1743–45, the British physician [Robert James] published A Medicinal Dictionary, in which he described masturbation as being "productive of the most deplorable and generally incurable disorders" and stated that "there is perhaps no sin productive of so many hideous consequences".[103] One of the many horrified by the descriptions of malady in Onania was the notable Swiss physician [Samuel-Auguste Tissot]. In 1760, he published L'Onanisme, his own comprehensive medical treatise on the purported ill-effects of masturbation. Though Tissot's ideas are now considered [conjectural] at best, his treatise was presented as a scholarly, scientific work in a time when experimental physiology was practically nonexistent.

19th century

By 1838 [Jean Esquirol] had declared in his Des Maladies Mentales that masturbation was "recognized in all countries as a cause of insanity."[104][105] Doctor [John Harvey Kellogg] and [Rev. Sylvester Graham] were among those who proposed that [circumcision] and eating a bland, meatless diet would curb masturbation.[106] The medical literature of the time also described more invasive procedures including electric shock treatment, [infibulation], restraining devices like [chastity belts] and [straitjackets], [cauterization] or – as a last resort – wholesale [surgical excision] of the genitals.

Medical attitudes toward masturbation began to change towards the end of the 19th century when [H. Havelock Ellis], in his seminal 1897 work Studies in the Psychology of Sex, questioned Tissot's premises.[107]

20th century

In 1905, [Sigmund Freud] addressed masturbation in his Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality and associated it with addictive substances. He described the masturbation of infants at the period when the infant is nursing, at four years of age, and at puberty. At the same time, the supposed medical condition of [hysteria]—from the Greek hystera or uterus—was being treated by what would now be described as medically administered or medically prescribed masturbation for women. In 1910, the meetings of the [Vienna psychoanalytic circle] discussed the moral or health effects of masturbation,[108] but its publication on the matter was suppressed. [Concerning Specific Forms of Masturbation] is a 1922 [essay] by another [Austrian], the [psychiatrist] and [psychoanalyst] [Wilhelm Reich]. In the seven and a half page essay Reich accepts the prevalent notions on the roles of [unconscious fantasy] and the subsequent emerging [guilt] feelings which he saw as originating from the act itself.

By 1930, Dr. [F. W. W. Griffin], editor of The Scouter, had written in a book for [Rover Scouts] stating that the temptation to masturbate was "a quite natural stage of development" and, citing [Ellis]' work, held that "the effort to achieve complete abstinence was a very serious error." The work of sexologist [Alfred Kinsey] during the 1940s and 1950s, most notably the [Kinsey Reports], insisted that masturbation was an instinctive behaviour for both males and females. In the US masturbation has not been a diagnosable condition since [DSM] II (1968).[60]

[Thomas Szasz] states the shift in [scientific consensus]:[52][53][109] "Masturbation: the primary sexual activity of mankind. In the nineteenth century it was a disease; in the twentieth, it's a cure."[54]

In the 1980s [Michel Foucault] was arguing masturbation taboo was "rape by the parents of the sexual activity of their children". However, in 1994, when the [Surgeon General of the United States], Dr. [Joycelyn Elders], mentioned as an aside that it should be mentioned in school [curricula] that masturbation was safe and healthy, she was forced to resign,[110] with opponents asserting that she was promoting the teaching of how to masturbate.

21st century

Both practices and cultural views of masturbation have continued to evolve in the 21st Century, partly because the contemporary [lifeworld] is increasingly technical.[according to whom?] For example, digital photographs or live video may be used to share masturbatory experiences either in a broadcast format (possibly in exchange of money, as with performances by "[camgirls]" and "[camboys]"), or between members of a [long-distance relationship]. [Teledildonics] is a growing field. Masturbation has been depicted as a not-uncomplicated part of "Love in the 21st Century" in the BBC drama by the same name.[111]

Stigma

Even though many [medical] professionals and [scientists] have found large amounts of evidence that masturbating is healthy[51][54][55][56][57][58][63][60] and commonly practiced by males and females, stigma on the topic still persists today. In November 2013, Matthew Burdette, after being filmed masturbating, committed [suicide].[112][113][114]

Proving that these ancient stigmas against masturbation are still alive and felt by women and men, researchers in 1994 found that half of the adult women and men who masturbate feel guilty about it (Laumann, et al., 1994. p.85). Another study in 2000 found that adolescent young men are still frequently afraid to admit that they masturbate (Halpern, et al., 2000, 327).[115]
— Planned Parenthood, Masturbation—From Stigma to Sexual Health

Religious views

Religions vary broadly in their views of masturbation, from considering it completely impermissible ([as in Roman Catholicism])[116] to encouraging and refining it (as, for example, in some [Neotantra] and [Taoist sexual practices]).

Philosophical arguments

Immanuel Kant regarded masturbation as a violation of the moral law. In The Metaphysics of Morals (1797), he made the a posteriori argument that "such an unnatural use of one's sexual attribute" strikes "everyone upon his thinking of it" as "a violation of one's duty to himself", and suggested that it was regarded as immoral even to give it its proper name (unlike the case of the similarly undutiful act of suicide). He went on, however, to acknowledge that "it is not so easy to produce a rational demonstration of the inadmissibility of that unnatural use", but ultimately concluded that its immorality lay in the fact that "a man gives up his personality … when he uses himself merely as a means for the gratification of an animal drive".[117]

Subsequent critics of masturbation tended to argue against it on more physiological grounds, however.

Law

The prosecution of masturbation has varied at different times, from virtually unlimited acceptance to complete illegality. In a 17th-century law code for the [Puritan] colony of [New Haven, Connecticut] "[blasphemers], [homosexuals] and masturbators" were eligible for the [death penalty].[118]

Often, masturbation in the sight of others is prosecuted under a general law such as [public indecency], though some laws make specific mention of masturbation. In the UK, masturbating in public is illegal under Section 28 of the Town Police Clauses Act 1847. The penalty may be up to 14 days in prison, depending on a range of circumstantial factors.[119] In the US, laws vary from state to state. In 2010, the Supreme Court of Alabama upheld a state law criminalizing the distribution of sex-toys.[120] In the city of Charlotte, North Carolina, masturbating in public is a class 3 misdemeanour.[119] In 2013, a man found masturbating openly on a beach in Sweden was cleared of charges of sexual assault, the court finding that his activities had not been directed towards any specific person.[121]

In many jurisdictions, masturbation by one person of another is considered [digital penetration] which may be illegal in some cases, such as when the other person is a minor.

There is debate whether masturbation should be promoted in correctional institutions. Restrictions on pornography, used to accompany masturbation, are common in [American correctional facilities]. [Connecticut Department of Corrections] officials say that these restrictions are intended to avoid a [hostile work environment] for [correctional officers].[122] Other researchers argue allowing masturbation could help prisoners restrict their sexual urges to their imaginations rather than engaging in [prison rape] or other non-masturbatory sexual activity that could pose sexually transmitted disease or other health risks.[123]

Cultural views and practices

Sperm donation

Male masturbation may be used as a method to obtain semen for third party reproductive procedures such as [artificial insemination] and [in vitro fertilisation] which may involve the use of either partner or donor sperm.[124][125]

At a [sperm bank] or fertility clinic, a special room or cabin may be set aside so that semen may be produced by male masturbation for use in fertility treatments such as artificial insemination. Most semen used for [sperm donation], and all semen donated through a sperm bank by sperm donors, is produced in this way. The facility at a sperm bank used for this purpose is known as a masturbatorium (US) or men's production room (UK). A bed or couch is usually provided for the man, and pornographic films or other material may be made available.[126]