Java
Java ([Indonesian]: Jawa; [Javanese]: ꦗꦮ; [Sundanese]: ᮏᮝ) is an [island] of [Indonesia]. At about 139,000 square kilometres (54,000 sq mi), the island is comparable in size to [England], the [U.S. State] of [North Carolina], or [Omsk Oblast]. With a population of over 141 million (the island itself) or 145 million (the administrative region), Java is home to 56.7 percent of the [Indonesian population] and is the world's [most populous island].[1] The [Indonesian] capital city, [Jakarta], is located on [western Java]. Much of Indonesian history took place on Java. It was the center of powerful Hindu-Buddhist empires, the Islamic sultanates, and the core of the colonial [Dutch East Indies]. Java was also the center of the [Indonesian struggle for independence] during the 1930s and 1940s. Java dominates [Indonesia] politically, economically and culturally. Four of Indonesia's eight UNESCO world heritage sites are located in Java: 1) Ujung Kulon National Park, 2) Borobudur Temple, 3) Prambanan Temple, and 4) Sangiran Early Man Site.
Formed mostly as the result of volcanic eruptions, Java is the [13th largest island] in the world and the [fifth largest] in [Indonesia] by landmass. A chain of volcanic mountains forms an east–west spine along the island. Three main languages are spoken on the island: [Javanese], [Sundanese], and [Madurese]. Of these, Javanese is the dominant; it is the native language of about 60 million people in Indonesia, most of whom live on Java. Furthermore, most residents are [bilingual], speaking [Indonesian] (the official language of Indonesia) as their first or second language. While the majority of the people of Java are [Muslim], Java's population is a diverse mixture of religious beliefs, ethnicities, and cultures.
Java is divided into four administrative provinces, [West Java], [Central Java], [East Java], and [Banten], and two special regions, [Jakarta] and [Yogyakarta].
Etymology
The origins of the name "Java" are not clear. One possibility is that the island was named after the [jáwa-wut] plant, which was said to be common in the island during the time, and that prior to Indianization the island had different names.[2] There are other possible sources: the word jaú and its variations mean "beyond" or "distant".[3] And, in [Sanskrit] yava means barley, a plant for which the island was famous.[3] "Yawadvipa" is mentioned in [India]'s earliest epic, the [Ramayana]. [Sugriva], the chief of [Rama]'s army dispatched his men to Yawadvipa, the island of Java, in search of [Sita].[4] It was hence referred to in India by the Sanskrit name "yāvaka dvīpa" (dvīpa = island). Java is mentioned in the ancient Tamil text Manimekalai by [Chithalai Chathanar] that states that Java had a kingdom with a capital called Nagapuram.[5][6][7] Another source states that the "Java" word is derived from a [Proto-Austronesian] root word, Iawa that meaning "home".[8] The great island of Iabadiu or Jabadiu was mentioned in [Ptolemy's] Geographia composed around 150 CE in the [Roman Empire]. Iabadiu is said to mean "barley island", to be rich in gold, and have a silver town called Argyra at the west end. The name indicate Java,[9] and seems to be derived from Hindu name Java-dvipa (Yawadvipa).
Geography
Java lies between [Sumatra] to the west and [Bali] to the east. [Borneo] lies to the north and [Christmas Island] is to the south. It is the [world's 13th largest island]. Java is surrounded by the [Java Sea] to the north, [Sunda Strait] to the west, the [Indian Ocean] to the south and [Bali Strait] and [Madura Strait] in the east.
Java is almost entirely of [volcanic] origin; it contains thirty-eight [mountains] forming an east–west spine that have at one time or another been active [volcanoes]. The highest volcano in Java is Mount [Semeru] (3,676 metres (12,060 ft)). The most active volcano in Java and also in Indonesia is [Mount Merapi] (2,930 metres (9,610 ft)).
More mountains and highlands help to split the interior into a series of relatively isolated regions suitable for [wet-rice] cultivation; the rice lands of Java are among the richest in the world.[10] Java was the first place where [Indonesian coffee] was grown, starting in 1699. Today, [Coffea arabica] is grown on the Ijen Plateau by small-holders and larger plantations.
The area of Java is approximately 150,000 square kilometres (58,000 sq mi).[11] It is about 1,000 km (620 mi) long and up to 210 km (130 mi) wide. The island's longest [river] is the 600 km long [Solo River].[12] The river rises from its source in central Java at the [Lawu] volcano, then flows north and eastward to its mouth in the [Java Sea] near the city of [Surabaya]. Other major rivers are [Brantas], [Citarum], [Cimanuk] and [Serayu].
The average temperature ranges from 22 °C (72 °F) to 29 °C (84 °F); average humidity is 75%. The northern coastal plains are normally hotter, averaging 34 °C (93 °F) during the day in the [dry season]. The south coast is generally cooler than the north, and highland areas inland are even cooler.[13] The [wet season] begins in November and ends in April. During that rain falls mostly in the afternoons and intermittently during other parts of the year. The wettest months are January and February.
West Java is wetter than East Java and mountainous regions receive much higher rainfall. The [Parahyangan] highlands of West Java receive over 4,000 millimetres (160 in) annually, while the north coast of East Java receives 900 millimetres (35 in) annually.
Natural environment
The [natural environment] of Java is [tropical rainforest], with ecosystems ranging from coastal [mangrove] forests on the north coast, rocky coastal cliffs on the southern coast, and low-lying tropical forests to high altitude rainforests on the slopes of mountainous volcanic regions in the interior. The Javan environment and climate gradually alters from west to east; from wet and humid dense rainforest in western parts, to a dry [savanna] environment in the east, corresponding to the climate and rainfall in these regions.
Originally Javan wildlife supported a rich biodiversity, where numbers of [endemic] species of flora and fauna flourished; such as the [Javan rhinoceros],[14] [Javan banteng], [Javan warty pig], [Javan hawk-eagle], [Javan peafowl], [Javan silvery gibbon], [Javan lutung], [Java mouse-deer], [Javan rusa], and [Javan leopard]. With over 450 species of birds and 37 endemic species, Java is a birdwatcher's paradise.[15] There are about 130 freshwater fish species in Java.[16] There are also several [endemic] [amphibian species in Java], including 5 species of [tree frogs].
Since ancient times, people have opened the rainforest, altered the ecosystem, shaped the landscapes and created [rice paddy] and terraces to support the growing population. Javan rice terraces have existed for more than a millennium, and had supported ancient agricultural kingdoms. The growing human population has put severe pressure on Java's wildlife, as rainforests were diminished and confined to highland slopes or isolated peninsulas. Some of Java's endemic species are now critically endangered, with some already extinct; Java used to have [Javan tigers] and [Javan elephants], but both have been rendered extinct. Today, several national parks exist in Java that protect the remnants of its fragile wildlife, such as [Ujung Kulon], [Mount Halimun-Salak], [Gede Pangrango], [Baluran], [Meru Betiri] and [Alas Purwo].
Administration
Java is divided into four [provinces] and two special regions:
- Banten, capital: Serang
- West Java, capital: Bandung
- Central Java, capital: Semarang
- East Java, capital: Surabaya
- Special Capital Region of Jakarta
- Special Region of Yogyakarta
History
Fossilised remains of Homo erectus, popularly known as the "[Java Man]", dating back 1.7 million years were found along the banks of the [Bengawan Solo River].[17]
The island's exceptional fertility and rainfall allowed the development of wet-field rice cultivation, which required sophisticated levels of cooperation between villages. Out of these village alliances, small kingdoms developed. The chain of volcanic mountains and associated highlands running the length of Java kept its interior regions and peoples separate and relatively isolated.[18] Before the advent of Islamic states and European colonialism, the rivers provided the main means of communication, although Java's many rivers are mostly short. Only the [Brantas] and Sala rivers could provide long-distance communication, and this way their valleys supported the centres of major kingdoms. A system of roads, permanent bridges and toll gates is thought to have been established in Java by at least the mid-17th century. Local powers could disrupt the routes as could the wet season and road use was highly dependent on constant maintenance. Subsequently, communication between Java's population was difficult.[19]
Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms era
The [Taruma] and [Sunda] kingdoms of western Java appeared in the 4th and 7th centuries respectively, while the [Kalingga Kingdom] sent embassies to China starting in 640.[20]:53,79 However, the first major principality was the [Medang Kingdom] that was founded in central Java at the beginning of the 8th century. Medang's religion centred on the Hindu god [Shiva], and the kingdom produced some of Java's earliest Hindu temples on the [Dieng Plateau]. Around the 8th century the [Sailendra] dynasty rose in [Kedu Plain] and become the patron of [Mahayana] [Buddhism]. This ancient kingdom built monuments such as the 9th century [Borobudur] and [Prambanan] in central Java.
Around the 10th century the centre of power shifted from central to eastern Java. The eastern Javanese kingdoms of [Kediri], [Singhasari] and [Majapahit] were mainly dependent on rice agriculture, yet also pursued trade within the Indonesian archipelago, and with China and India.
[Majapahit] was established by [Wijaya][20]:201 and by the end of the reign of [Hayam Wuruk] (r. 1350–89) it claimed sovereignty over the entire Indonesian archipelago, although control was likely limited to Java, Bali and Madura. Hayam Wuruk's prime minister, [Gajah Mada], led many of the kingdom's territorial conquests.[20]:234 Previous Javanese kingdoms had their power based in agriculture, however, Majapahit took control of ports and shipping lanes and became Java's first commercial empire. With the death of Hayam Wuruk and the [coming of Islam to Indonesia], Majapahit went into decline.[20]:241
Spread of Islam and rise of Islamic sultanates
[Islam] became the dominant religion in Java at the end of the 16th century. During this era, the Islamic kingdoms of [Demak], [Cirebon], and [Banten] were ascendant. The [Mataram Sultanate] became the dominant power of central and eastern Java at the end of the 16th century. The principalities of Surabaya and Cirebon were eventually subjugated such that only Mataram and Banten were left to face the Dutch in the 17th century.
Colonial periods
Java's contact with the European colonial powers began in 1522 with [a treaty] between the [Sunda kingdom] and the [Portuguese in Malacca]. After its failure the [Portuguese presence] was confined to Malacca, and to the eastern islands. In 1596, a four-ship expedition led by [Cornelis de Houtman] was the first Dutch contact with Indonesia.[21] By the end of the 18th century the Dutch had extended their influence over the sultanates of the interior through the [Dutch East India Company in Indonesia]. Internal conflict prevented the Javanese from forming effective alliances against the Dutch. Remnants of the Mataram survived as the Surakarta (Solo) and Yogyakarta principalities. Javanese kings claimed to rule with divine authority and the Dutch helped them to preserve remnants of a Javanese aristocracy by confirming them as regents or district officials within the colonial administration.
Java's major role during the early part of the colonial period was as a producer of [rice]. In spice producing islands like [Banda], rice was regularly imported from Java, to supply the deficiency in means of subsistence.[22]
During the [Napoleonic wars] in Europe, the [Netherlands] fell to [France], as did its colony in the [East Indies]. During the short-lived [Daendels] administration, as French proxy rule on Java, the construction of the [Java Great Post Road] was commenced in 1808. The road, spanning from [Anyer] in Western Java to Panarukan in East Java, served as a military supply route and was used in defending Java from British invasion.[23]
In 1811, Java was [captured by the British], becoming a possession of the [British Empire], and Sir [Stamford Raffles] was appointed as the island's Governor. In 1814, Java was returned to the Dutch under the terms of the [Treaty of Paris].[24]
In 1815, there may have been five million people in Java.[25] In the second half of the 18th century, population spurts began in districts along the north-central coast of Java, and in the 19th century population grew rapidly across the island. Factors for the great population growth include the impact of Dutch colonial rule including the imposed end to civil war in Java, the increase in the area under rice cultivation, and the introduction of food plants such as [casava] and [maize] that could sustain populations that could not afford rice.[26] Others attribute the growth to the taxation burdens and increased expansion of employment under the [Cultivation System] to which couples responded by having more children in the hope of increasing their families' ability to pay tax and buy goods.[27] [Cholera] claimed 100,000 lives in Java in 1820.[28]
The advent of trucks and railways where there had previously only been buffalo and carts, telegraph systems, and more coordinated distribution systems under the colonial government all contributed to famine elimination in Java, and in turn, population growth. There were no significant famines in Java from the 1840s through to the [Japanese occupation] in the 1940s.[29] However, other sources claimed the [Dutch's] [Cultivation system] is linked to famines and epidemics in the 1840s, firstly in [Cirebon] and then [Central Java], as cash crops such as indigo and sugar had to be grown instead of rice. Furthermore, the age of first marriage dropped during the 19th century thus increasing a woman's child bearing years.[29]
Independence
Indonesian nationalism first took hold in Java in the early 20th century, and [the struggle to secure the country's independence] following [World War II] was centered in Java. In 1949, Indonesia became independent and the island has dominated Indonesian social, political and economic life, which has been the source of resentment of those residents in other islands.
Demography
Demographic profile
Java has been traditionally dominated by an elite class, while the people in the lower classes were often involved in agriculture and fishing. The elite class in Java has evolved over the course of history, as cultural wave after cultural wave immigrated to the island. There is evidence that South Asian emigres were among this elite, as well as Arabian and Persian immigrants during the Islamic eras. More recently, Chinese immigrants have also become part of the economic elite of Java. Although politically the Chinese generally remain sidelined, there are notable exceptions, such as the former governor of Jakarta, [Basuki Tjahaja Purnama]. Though Java is increasingly becoming more modern and urban, only 75% of the island has electricity. Villages and their rice paddies are still a common sight. Unlike the rest of Java, the population growth in Central Java remains low. Central Java however has a younger population than the national average.[32] The slow population growth can in part be attributed to the choice by many people to leave the more rural Central Java for better opportunities and higher incomes in the bigger cities.[33] Java's population continues to rapidly increase despite many Javanese leaving the island. This is somewhat due to the fact that Java is the business, academic, and cultural hub of Indonesia, which attracts millions of non-Javanese people to its cities. The population growth is most intense in the regions surrounding [Jakarta] and [Bandung], which is reflected through the demographic diversity in those areas.
Population development
With a combined population of 145 million in the 2015 census (including Madura's 3.7 million),[34] which is estimated for 2014 at 143.1 million (including 3.7 million for Madura), Java is the [most populous island in the world] and is home to 57% of Indonesia's population.[34] At over 1,100 people per km² in 2014, it is also one of the most densely populated parts of the world, on par with Bangladesh. Every region of the island has numerous volcanoes, with the people left to share the remaining flatter land. Because of this, many coasts are heavily populated and cities ring around the valleys surrounding volcanic peaks.
The population growth rate more than doubled in economically depressed Central Java in the latest 2010–2015 period vs 2000–2010, indicative of migration or other issues; there were significant [volcanic eruptions] during the earlier period. Approximately 45% of the population of Indonesia is ethnically Javanese,[35] while Sundanese make a large portion of Java's population as well.
The western third of the island (West Java, Banten, and DKI Jakarta) has an even higher population density, of nearly 1,500 per square kilometer and accounts for the lion's share of the population growth of Java.[34] It is home to three metropolitan areas, [Greater Jakarta] (with outlying areas of Greater [Serang] and Greater [Sukabumi]), [Greater Bandung], and Greater [Cirebon].
1) Other islands are included in this figure, but are very small in population and area, Nusa Barung 100 km², Bawean 196 km², Karimunjawa 78 km², Kambangan 121 km², Panaitan 170 km², Thousand Islands 8.7 km² – with a combined population of roughly 90,000.
2) Land area of provinces updated in 2010 Census figures, areas may be different than past results.
3) 2015 Census prelim data released only first level administrations only, where not available 2014 Min. Health[31] estimates are used in their place.
From the 1970s to the fall of the [Suharto] regime in 1998, the Indonesian government ran [transmigration programs] aimed at resettling the population of Java on other less-populated islands of Indonesia. This program has met with mixed results, sometimes causing conflicts between the locals and the recently arrived [settlers]. Nevertheless, it has caused Java's share of the nation's population to progressively decline.
Jakarta and its outskirts, being the dominant metropolis, is also home to people from all over the nation. East Java is also home to ethnic Balinese, as well as large numbers of Madurans due to their historic poverty.
Ethnicity and culture
Despite its large population and in contrast to the other larger islands of Indonesia, Java is comparatively homogeneous in ethnic composition. Only two ethnic groups are native to the island—the [Javanese] and [Sundanese]. A third group is the [Madurese], who inhabit the island of [Madura] off the north east coast of Java, and have immigrated to [East Java] in large numbers since the 18th century.[37] The Javanese comprise about two-thirds of the island's population, while the Sundanese and Madurese account for 20% and 10% respectively.[37] The fourth group is the [Betawi people] that speak a dialect of [Malay], they are the descendants of the people living around [Batavia] from around the 17th century. Betawis are [creole people], mostly descended from various Indonesian archipelago ethnic groups such as [Malay], [Sundanese], [Javanese], [Balinese], [Minang], [Bugis], [Makassar], [Ambonese], mixed with foreign ethnic groups such as [Portuguese], [Dutch], [Arab], [Chinese] and [Indian] brought to or attracted to Batavia to meet labour needs. They have a culture and language distinct from the surrounding [Sundanese] and [Javanese].
The Javanese [kakawin] [Tantu Pagelaran] explained the mythical origin of the island and its volcanic nature. Four major cultural areas exist on the island: the kejawen or Javanese heartland, the north coast of the pasisir region, the [Sunda] lands of West Java, and the [eastern salient], also known as [Blambangan]. Madura makes up a fifth area having close cultural ties with coastal Java.[37] The kejawen Javanese culture is the island's most dominant. Java's remaining aristocracy are based here, and it is the region from where the majority of Indonesia's army, business, and political elite originate. Its language, arts, and etiquette are regarded as the island's most refined and exemplary.[37] The territory from [Banyumas] in the west through to [Blitar] in the east and encompasses Indonesia's most fertile and densely populated agricultural land.[37]
In the southwestern part of Central Java, which is usually named the [Banyumasan] region, a cultural mingling occurred; bringing together Javanese culture and Sundanese culture to create the [Banyumasan] culture.[citation needed] In the central Javanese court cities of [Yogyakarta] and [Surakarta], contemporary kings trace their lineages back to the pre-colonial Islamic kingdoms that ruled the region, making those places especially strong repositories of classical Javanese culture. Classic arts of Java include [gamelan] music and [wayang] puppet shows.
Java was the site of many influential kingdoms in the Southeast Asian region,[38] and as a result, many literary works have been written by Javanese authors. These include , the story of the orphan who usurped his king, and married the queen of the ancient Javanese kingdom; and translations of Ramayana and Mahabharata. [Pramoedya Ananta Toer] is a famous contemporary Indonesian author, who has written many stories based on his own experiences of having grown up in Java, and takes many elements from Javanese folklore and historical legends.
Languages
The three major languages spoken on Java are [Javanese], [Sundanese] and [Madurese]. Other languages spoken include [Betawi] (a [Malay] dialect local to the Jakarta region), [Osing], [Banyumasan], and [Tenggerese] (closely related to Javanese), [Baduy] (closely related to Sundanese), [Kangeanese] (closely related to Madurese), and [Balinese].[39] The vast majority of the population also speaks [Indonesian], often as a second language.
Religion
Java has been a melting pot of religions and cultures, which has created a broad range of religious belief.
[Indian] influences came first with [Shaivism] and [Buddhism] penetrating deeply into society, blending with indigenous tradition and culture.[40] One [conduit] for this were the [ascetics], called resi, who taught mystical practices. A resi lived surrounded by students, who took care of their master's daily needs. Resi's authorities were merely ceremonial. At the courts, [Brahmin] clerics and pudjangga (sacred literati) legitimised rulers and linked [Hindu] cosmology to their political needs.[40] Small [Hindu] enclaves are scattered throughout Java, but there is a large [Hindu] population along the eastern coast nearest [Bali], especially around the town of [Banyuwangi].
[Islam], which came after Hinduism, strengthened the status structure of this traditional religious pattern. More than 90 percent of the people of Java are Muslims, on a broad continuum between abangan (more traditional) and santri (more modernist). The Muslim scholar of the writ (Kyai) became the new religious elite as Hindu influences receded. Islam recognises no hierarchy of religious leaders nor a formal [priesthood], but the [Dutch colonial government] established an elaborate rank order for mosque and other Islamic preaching schools. In Javanese pesantren (Islamic schools), The Kyai perpetuated the tradition of the resi. Students around him provided his needs, even [peasants] around the school.[40]
Pre-Islamic Javan traditions have encouraged Islam in a mystical direction. There emerged in Java a loosely structured society of religious leadership, revolving around kyais, possessing various degrees of proficiency in pre-Islamic and Islamic [lore], [belief] and practice.[40] The kyais are the principal intermediaries between the villages masses and the realm of the [supernatural]. However, this very looseneess of kyai leadership structure has promoted [schism]. There were often sharp divisions between orthodox kyais, who merely instructed in Islamic law, with those who taught [mysticism] and those who sought reformed Islam with modern scientific concepts. As a result, there is a division between santri, who believe that they are more orthodox in their Islamic belief and practice, with abangan, who have mixed pre-Islamic [animistic] and Hindu-Indian concepts with a superficial acceptance of Islamic belief.[40]
There are also [Christian] communities, mostly in the larger cities, though some rural areas of south-central Java are strongly [Roman Catholic]. [Buddhist] communities also exist in the major cities, primarily among the [Chinese Indonesian]. The Indonesian constitution recognises six official religions.
A wider effect of this division is the number of sects. In the middle of 1956, the Department of Religious Affairs in [Yogyakarta] reported 63 religious sects in Java other than the official Indonesian religions. Of these, 35 were in [Central Java], 22 in [West Java] and six in [East Java].[40] These include [Kejawen], [Sumarah], [Subud], etc. Their total membership is difficult to estimate as many of their adherents identify themselves with one of the official religions.[41]