Incest

Incest is between family members or close . This typically includes sexual activity between people in (blood relations), and sometimes those related by ( or ), , , or .

The is one of the most widespread of all cultural , both in present and in past societies. or social restrictions on closely consanguineous marriages.. Some cultures extend the incest taboo to relatives with no consanguinity such as , step-siblings, and adoptive siblings, albeit sometimes with less intensity. Third-degree relatives (such as half-aunt, half-nephew, first cousin) on average have 12.5% common genetic heritage, and sexual relations between them are viewed differently in various cultures, from being discouraged to being socially acceptable., and are still so regarded in some societies today. In most cases, the parents did not have the option to marry to remove that status, as incestuous marriages were, and are, normally also prohibited.

A common justification for prohibiting incest is avoiding : a collection of suffered by the children of parents with a close .—a measure of how closely the parents are related genetically. But cultural anthropologists have noted that inbreeding avoidance cannot form the sole basis for the incest taboo because the boundaries of the incest prohibition vary widely between cultures, and not necessarily in ways that maximize the avoidance of inbreeding.

In some societies, such as those of , brother–sister, father–daughter, mother–son, cousin–cousin, aunt–nephew, uncle–niece, and other combinations of relations within a were married as a means of perpetuating the royal lineage. Some societies, such as the tribes,

The English word is derived from the Latin incestus, which has a general meaning of "impure, unchaste".
It was introduced into , both in the generic Latin sense (preserved throughout the Middle English period[19]) and in the narrow modern sense.
The derived adjective incestuous appears in the 16th century.[20]
Before the Latin term came in, incest was known in as sib-leger (from sibb 'kinship' + leger 'to lie') or mǣġhǣmed (from mǣġ 'kin, parent' + hǣmed 'sexual intercourse') but in time, both words fell out of use. Terms like incester

Other words that describe sexual attraction to relatives include consanguinophilia, consanguinamory, synegenesophilia, incestuality and incestophilia.

Antiquity[]

In , first cousins with the same surnames (i.e., those born to the father's brothers) were not permitted to marry, while those with different surnames could marry.(i.e., maternal cousins and paternal cousins born to the father's sisters).[31]

Several of the Egyptian married their siblings and had several children with them. For example, married his half-sister , and was himself the child of an incestuous union between and an unidentified sister-wife. Several scholars, such as Frier et al., state that sibling marriages were widespread among all classes in Egypt during the Graeco-Roman period. Numerous and the Roman census declarations attest to many husbands and wives being brother and sister, of the same father and mother. However, it has also been argued that available evidence does not support the view such relations were common.[38]
The most famous of these relationships were in the ; was married to her younger brother, , while her mother and father, and , had also been brother and sister.

The fable of , with a theme of inadvertent incest between a mother and son, ends in disaster and shows ancient taboos against incest as Oedipus blinds himself in disgust and shame after his incestuous actions. In the "sequel" to Oedipus, , his four children are also punished for their parents' incestuousness. Incest appears in the commonly accepted version of the birth of , when his mother, has sex with her father during a festival, disguised as a .

In , , hero of the legendary , was married to his , daughter of his half-brother . Greek law allowed marriage between a brother and sister if they had different mothers. For example, some accounts say that was for a time married to her half-brother .[39]

Incest is mentioned and condemned in 's Book VI:[40] hic thalamum invasit natae vetitosque hymenaeos; "This one invaded a daughter's room and a forbidden sex act".

prohibited marriages within four degrees of consanguinity. daughter or granddaughter even if the adoption had been dissolved. (against the laws of gods and man) in . In AD 295 incest was explicitly forbidden by an imperial edict, which divided the concept of incestus into two categories of unequal gravity: the incestus iuris gentium, which was applied to both Romans and non-Romans in the Empire, and the incestus iuris civilis, which concerned only Roman citizens. Therefore, for example, an Egyptian could marry an aunt, but a Roman could not. Despite the act of incest being unacceptable within the Roman Empire, Roman Emperor is rumored to have had sexual relationships with all three of his sisters (, , and )., after executing his previous wife, married his brother's daughter Agrippina the Younger, and changed the law to allow an otherwise illegal union. The taboo against incest in Ancient Rome is demonstrated by the fact that politicians would use charges of incest (often false charges) as insults and means of political disenfranchisement.

In , there are themes of brother-sister marriage, a prominent example being between and his (perhaps ), parents of and . in turn also accuses Freyja and Freyr of having a sexual relationship.

Biblical references[]

The earliest Biblical reference to incest involved Cain. It was cited that he knew his wife and she conceived and bore Enoch. According to the , married his sister . Later, in of the , the married his half-sister . Other references include the passage in Samuel where , King 's son, raped his half-sister, ., it would have been perfectly all right for Amnon to have married her, the Bible being inconsistent about prohibiting incest.[50]

In Genesis 19:30-38, living in an isolated area after the destruction of , 's two daughters conspired to inebriate and seduce their father due to the lack of available partners to continue his . Because of intoxication, Lot "perceived not" when his firstborn, and the following night his younger daughter, lay with him (Genesis 19:32-35).

Moses was also born to an incestuous marriage. detailed how his father was the nephew of his mother . It stated, however, that the incest exposed Moses "to the peril of wild beasts, of the weather, of the water, and more."[51]

From the Middle Ages onward[]

Many European monarchs were related due to political marriages, sometimes resulting in distant cousins – and even first cousins – being married. This was especially true in the , , and royal houses. However, relations between siblings, which may have been tolerated in other cultures, were considered abhorrent. For example, the accusation that and her brother had committed incest was one of the reasons that both siblings were executed in May 1536.

Incestuous marriages were also seen in the royal houses of ancient and Korea,, , and, at times, Central Africa, , and . rulers married their sisters. , for instance, was the son of and the Inca's sister and wife.[54]

Half-sibling marriages were found in ancient Japan such as the marriage of and his half-sister . had sexual relationships with his full sister Princess Karu no Ōiratsume, although the action was regarded as foolish. Dynasty monarch became his wife in the 10th century. Her name was Daemok., who raped one of his deceased , who was thus regarded to be his mother.[58]

In India, the largest proportion of women aged 13 to 49 who marry their close relative are in , then , , and . While it is rare for uncle-niece marriages, it is more common in and .

Incest between an adult and a person under the is considered a form of that has been shown to be one of the most extreme forms of childhood abuse; it often results in serious and long-term , especially in the case of parental incest. Among women, research has yielded estimates as high as 20%.[63]

– incest was for many years the most commonly reported and studied form of incest. More recently, studies have suggested that , particularly older brothers having sexual relations with younger siblings, is the most common form of incest, Some studies suggest that adolescent perpetrators of sibling abuse choose younger victims, abuse victims over a lengthier period, use violence more frequently and severely than adult perpetrators, and that sibling abuse has a higher rate of penetrative acts than father or stepfather incest, with father and older brother incest resulting in greater reported distress than stepfather incest.[79]

Between adults and children[]

Sex between an adult family member and a child is usually considered a form of child sexual abuse, and for many years has been the most reported form of incest. Father–daughter and stepfather–stepdaughter sex is the most commonly reported form of adult–child incest, with most of the remaining involving a mother or stepmother. Father–son incest is reported less often, but it is not known how close the frequency is to heterosexual incest because it is likely more under-reported. Prevalence of incest between parents and their children is difficult to estimate due to secrecy and privacy.

In a 1999 news story, BBC reported, "Close-knit family life in masks an alarming amount of sexual abuse of children and teenage girls by family members, a new report suggests. Delhi organisation said 76% of respondents to its survey had been abused when they were children—40% of those by a family member."[88]

According to the National Center for Victims of Crime a large proportion of committed in the United States is perpetrated by a family member:

Research indicates that 46% of children who are raped are victims of family members (Langan and Harlow, 1994). The majority of American rape victims (61%) are raped before the age of 18; furthermore, 29% of all rapes occurred when the victim was less than 11 years old. 11% of rape victims are raped by their fathers or stepfathers, and another 16% are raped by other relatives.[89]

A study of victims of father–daughter incest in the 1970s showed that there were "common features" within families before the occurrence of incest: estrangement between the mother and the daughter, extreme paternal dominance, and reassignment of some of the mother's traditional major family responsibility to the daughter. Oldest and only daughters were more likely to be the victims of incest. It was also stated that the incest experience was psychologically harmful to the woman in later life, frequently leading to feelings of low self-esteem, very unhealthy sexual activity, contempt for other women, and other emotional problems.]

Adults who as children were incestuously victimized by adults often suffer from low , difficulties in interpersonal relationships, and , and are at an extremely high risk of many mental disorders, including , , , , , , and . in is a specific instance in which child sexual abuse in the form of forced adult/child and sibling/sibling incest took place over at least three generations. In July 2012, twelve children were removed from the (a pseudonym) in , Australia, after the discovery of four generations of incest. Child protection workers and psychologists said interviews with the children indicated "a virtual sexual free-for-all".[96]

In Japan, there is a popular misconception that mother-son incestuous contact is common, due to the manner in which it is depicted in the press and popular media. According to Hideo Tokuoka, "When Americans think of incest, they think of fathers and daughters; in Japan one thinks of mothers and sons" due to the extensive media coverage of mother-son incest there.

While incest between adults and children generally involves the adult as the perpetrator of abuse, there are rare instances of sons sexually assaulting their mothers. These sons are typically mid adolescent to young adult, and, unlike parent-initiated incest, the incidents involve some kind of physical force. Although the mothers may be accused of being seductive with their sons and inviting the sexual contact, this is contrary to evidence. Such accusations can parallel other forms of rape, where, due to , a woman is accused of somehow being at fault for the rape. In some cases, mother-son incest is best classified as of the mother by the adolescent son.

Between childhood siblings[]

Childhood is considered to be widespread but rarely reported. when it occurs without consent, without equality, or as a result of . In this form, it is believed to be the most common form of intrafamilial abuse. A 2006 study showed a large portion of adults who experienced sibling incest abuse have "distorted" or "disturbed" beliefs (such as that the act was "normal") both about their own experience and the subject of sexual abuse in general.[102]

Sibling abusive incest is most prevalent in families where one or both parents are often absent or emotionally unavailable, with the abusive siblings using incest as a way to assert their power over a weaker sibling. The damaging effects on both childhood development and adult symptoms resulting from brother–sister sexual abuse are similar to the effects of father–daughter, including substance abuse, depression, suicidality, and eating disorders.

Between consenting adults[]

Sexual activity between adult close relatives is sometimes ascribed to . Internet and topical websites exist that provide support for incestuous couples.[106]

Proponents of incest between consenting adults draw clear boundaries between the behavior of consenting adults and rape, child molestation, and abusive incest. and criminalized in many jurisdictions. James Roffee, a senior lecturer in criminology at and former worker on legal responses to familial sexual activity in England and Wales, and Scotland, He also argues that the use of particular language tools in the legislation manipulates the reader to deem all familial sexual activities as immoral and criminal, even if all parties are consenting adults.[110]

According to one incest participant who was quoted for an article in :

You can't help who you fall in love with, it just happens. I fell in love with my sister and I'm not ashamed ... I only feel sorry for my mom and dad, I wish they could be happy for us. We love each other. It's nothing like some old man who tries to fuck his three-year-old, that's evil and disgusting ... Of course we're consenting, that's the most important thing. We're not fucking perverts. What we have is the most beautiful thing in the world.[106]

In , drew a legal connection between gay sex and incest between consenting adults. commented on a pending U.S. Supreme Court case involving sodomy laws (primarily as a matter of to and ):

"If the Supreme Court says that you have the right to consensual sex within your home, then you have the right to bigamy, you have the right to polygamy, you have the right to incest, you have the right to adultery."[111]

Saletan argued that, legally and morally, there is essentially no difference between the two, and went on to support incest between consenting adults being covered by a legal right to privacy. law professor has made similar arguments.

Aunts, uncles, nieces or nephews[]

In the , marrying one's nephew or niece is legal, but only with the explicit permission of the Dutch Government, due to the possible risk of among the offspring. Nephew-niece marriages predominantly occur among foreign immigrants. In November 2008, the Christian Democratic (CDA) party's Scientific Institute announced that it wanted a ban on marriages to nephews and nieces.[114]

Consensual sex between adults (persons of 18 years and older) is always lawful in the Netherlands and Belgium, even among closely related family members. Sexual acts between an adult family member and a minor are illegal, though they are not classified as incest, but as abuse of the authority such an adult has over a minor, comparable to that of a teacher, coach or priest.[115]

In Florida, consensual adult sexual intercourse with someone known to be your aunt, uncle, niece or nephew constitutes a felony of the third degree. The legality of sex with a half-aunt or half-uncle varies state by state.[118]

In the United Kingdom, incest includes only sexual intercourse with a parent, grandparent, child or sibling, However, the term 'incest' remains widely used in popular culture to describe any form of sexual activity with a relative. In Canada, marriage between uncles and nieces and between aunts and nephews is legal.[121]

Between adult siblings[]

The most public case of consensual adult sibling incest in recent years is the case of a brother-sister couple from Germany, and Susan Karolewski. Because of violent behavior on the part of his father, Patrick was taken in at the age of 3 by foster parents, who adopted him later. At the age of 23 he learned about his biological parents, contacted his mother, and met her and his then 16-year-old sister Susan for the first time. The now-adult Patrick moved in with his birth family shortly thereafter. After their mother died suddenly six months later, the siblings became intimately close, and had their first child together in 2001. By 2004, they had four children together: Eric, Sarah, Nancy, and Sofia. The public nature of their relationship, and the repeated and even jail time they have served as a result, has caused some in Germany to question whether incest between consenting adults should be punished at all. An article about them in states that the couple are happy together. According to court records, the first three children have mental and physical disabilities, and have been placed in foster care., Patrick Stübing lost his case that the conviction violated his right to a private and family life. On September 24, 2014, the has recommended that the government abolish laws criminalizing incest between siblings, arguing that such bans impinge upon citizens.

Some societies differentiate between full sibling and half sibling relations. In ancient societies, full sibling and half sibling marriages occurred.

Cousin relationships[ married his cousin .

Marriages and sexual relationships between first cousins are stigmatized as incest in some cultures, but tolerated in much of the world. Currently, 24 prohibit marriages between first cousins, and another seven permit them only under special circumstances.[128]
The United Kingdom permits both marriage and sexual relations between first cousins.[129]

In some non-Western societies, marriages between close biological relatives account for 20% to 60% of all marriages.[132]

First- and second-cousin marriages are rare, accounting for less than 1% of marriages in Western Europe, North America and Oceania, while reaching 9% in South America, East Asia and South Europe and about 50% in regions of the Middle East, North Africa and South Asia.[ ] of Pakistan clearly prefer marriages between cousins as belief they ensure purity of the descent line, provide intimate knowledge of the spouses, and ensure that will not pass into the hands of "outsiders". marriages are preferred among the of Brazilian Amazonia, among many other tribal societies identified by anthropologists.

There are some cultures in Asia which stigmatize cousin marriage, in some instances even marriages between second cousins or more remotely related people. This is notably true in the culture of . In South Korea, before 1997, anyone with the same last name and clan were prohibited from marriage. In light of this law being held unconstitutional, South Korea now only prohibits up to third cousins (see ). culture prohibits the marriage of anyone with the same last name – to do so would result in being shunned by the entire community, and they are usually stripped of their last name. communities in India prohibit cousin marriages.

In a review of 48 studies on the children parented by cousins, the rate of birth defects was twice that of non-related couples: 4% for cousin couples as opposed to 2% for the general population.[136]

Defined through marriage[]

Some cultures include relatives by marriage in incest prohibitions; these relationships are called rather than . For example, the question of the legality and morality of a widower who wished to marry his was the subject of long and fierce debate in the in the 19th century, involving, among others, and . The marriages were entered into in Scotland and Switzerland respectively, where they were legal. In medieval Europe, standing as a to a child also created a bond of affinity.[] But in other societies, a deceased spouse's sibling was considered the ideal person to marry. The Hebrew Bible forbids a man from marrying his brother's widow with the exception that, if his brother died childless, the man is instead required to marry his brother's widow so as to "raise up seed to him" (per ). Some societies have long practiced , a form of in which a man marries multiple wives who are sisters to each other (though not closely related to him).

In Islamic law, marriage among close blood relations like parents, stepparent, parents in-law, siblings, stepsiblings, the children of siblings, aunts and uncles is prohibited, while first or second cousins may marry. Marrying the widow of a brother, or the sister of deceased or divorced wife is also allowed.