English grammar

English grammar is the way in which meanings are encoded into wordings in the [English language]. This includes the structure of [words], [phrases], [clauses], and [sentences], right up to the structure of whole texts.

There are historical, social, cultural and regional variations of English. Divergences from the [grammar] described here occur in some [dialects]. This article describes a generalized present-day [Standard English] – a form of speech and writing used in public discourse, including broadcasting, education, entertainment, government, and news, over a range of registers from formal to informal. There are differences in grammar between the standard forms of [British], [American], and [Australian English], although these are more minor than differences in [vocabulary] and [pronunciation].

[Modern English] has largely abandoned the [inflectional] [case system] of Indo-European in favor of [analytic] constructions. The [personal pronouns] retain morphological case more strongly than any other word class (a remnant of the more extensive Germanic [case system of Old English]). For other pronouns, and all nouns, adjectives, and articles, grammatical function is indicated only by [word order], by [prepositions], and by the "[Saxon genitive] or [English possessive]" (-'s).[1]

Eight ["word classes" or "parts of speech"] are commonly distinguished in English: [nouns], [determiners], [pronouns], [verbs], [adjectives], [adverbs], [prepositions], and [conjunctions]. Nouns form the largest word class, and verbs the second-largest. Unlike many Indo-European languages, English nouns do not have [grammatical gender].

Word classes and phrases

Nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs form [open classes] – word classes that readily accept new members, such as the noun celebutante (a celebrity who frequents the fashion circles), and other similar relatively new words.[2] The others are considered to be [closed classes]. For example, it is rare for a new pronoun to enter the language. Determiners, traditionally classified along with adjectives, have not always been regarded as a separate part of speech. [Interjections] are another word class, but these are not described here as they do not form part of the [clause] and [sentence] structure of the language.[2]

English words are not generally marked for word class. It is not usually possible to tell from the form of a word which class it belongs to except, to some extent, in the case of words with inflectional endings or derivational suffixes. On the other hand, most words belong to more than one word class. For example, run can serve as either a verb or a noun (these are regarded as two different [lexemes]).[3] Lexemes may be [inflected] to express different grammatical categories. The lexeme run has the forms runs, ran, runny, runner, and running.[3] Words in one class can sometimes be [derived] from those in another. This has the potential to give rise to new words. The noun aerobics has recently given rise to the adjective aerobicized.[3]

Words combine to form [phrases]. A phrase typically serves the same function as a word from some particular word class.[3] For example, my very good friend Peter is a phrase that can be used in a sentence as if it were a noun, and is therefore called a [noun phrase]. Similarly, [adjectival phrases] and [adverbial phrases] function as if they were adjectives or adverbs, but with other types of phrases the terminology has different implications. For example, a [verb phrase] consists of a verb together with any objects and other dependents; a [prepositional phrase] consists of a preposition and its [complement] (and is therefore usually a type of adverbial phrase); and a [determiner phrase] is a type of noun phrase containing a determiner.

Nouns

There are many common [suffixes] used to form nouns from other nouns or from other types of words, such as -age (as in shrinkage), -hood (as in sisterhood), and so on,[3] although many nouns are base forms not containing any such suffix (such as cat, grass, France). Nouns are also often created by [conversion] of verbs or adjectives, as with the words talk and reading (a boring talk, the assigned reading).

Nouns are sometimes classified semantically (by their meanings) as [proper nouns and common nouns] (Cyrus, China vs. frog, milk) or as [concrete nouns and abstract nouns] (book, laptop vs. heat, prejudice).[4] A grammatical distinction is often made between [count (countable) nouns] such as clock and city, and [non-count (uncountable) nouns] such as milk and decor.[5] Some nouns can function both as countable and as uncountable such as the word "wine" (This is a good wine, I prefer red wine).

Countable nouns generally have [singular] and [plural] forms.[4] In most cases the plural is formed from the singular by adding -[e]s (as in dogs, bushes), although there are also [irregular] forms (woman/women, foot/feet, etc.), including cases where the two forms are identical (sheep, series). For more details, see [English plural]. Certain nouns can be used with plural verbs even though they are singular in form, as in The government were ... (where the government is considered to refer to the people constituting the government). This is a form of [synesis]; it is more common in British than American English. See [English plural § Singulars with collective meaning treated as plural].

English nouns are not marked for [case] as they are in some languages, but they have [possessive] forms, through the addition of -'s (as in John's, children's) or just an [apostrophe] (with no change in pronunciation) in the case of -[e]s plurals and sometimes other words ending with -s (the dogs' owners, Jesus' love). More generally, the ending can be applied to noun phrases (as in the man you saw yesterday's sister); see below. The possessive form can be used either as a determiner (John's cat) or as a noun phrase (John's is the one next to Jane's).

The [status of the possessive] as an affix or a clitic is the subject of debate.[6][7] It differs from the noun inflection of languages such as German, in that the [genitive] ending may attach to the last word of the phrase. To account for this, the possessive can be analysed, for instance as a clitic construction (an "[enclitic] [postposition]"[8]) or as an inflection[9][10] of the last word of a phrase ("edge inflection").

Phrases

[Noun phrases] are phrases that function grammatically as nouns within sentences, for example as the [subject] or [object] of a verb. Most noun phrases have a noun as their [head].[5]

An English noun phrase typically takes the following form (not all elements need be present):

In this structure:

• the determiner may be an article (the, a[n]) or other equivalent word, as described in the following section. In many contexts it is required for a noun phrase to include some determiner.
• pre-modifiers include adjectives and some adjective phrases (such as red, really lovely), and noun adjuncts (such as college in the phrase the college student). Adjectival modifiers usually come before noun adjuncts.
• a complement or postmodifier[5] may be a prepositional phrase (... of London), a relative clause (like ...which we saw yesterday), certain adjective or participial phrases (... sitting on the beach), or a dependent clause or infinitive phrase appropriate to the noun (like ... that the world is round after a noun such as fact or statement, or ... to travel widely after a noun such as desire).

An example of a noun phrase that includes all of the above-mentioned elements is that rather attractive young college student to whom you were talking. Here that is the determiner, rather attractive and young are adjectival pre-modifiers, college is a noun adjunct, student is the noun serving as the head of the phrase, and to whom you were talking is a post-modifier (a relative clause in this case). Notice the order of the pre-modifiers; the determiner that must come first and the noun adjunct college must come after the adjectival modifiers.

Coordinating conjunctions such as and, or, and but can be used at various levels in noun phrases, as in John, Paul, and Mary; the matching green coat and hat; a dangerous but exciting ride; a person sitting down or standing up. See [§ Conjunctions] below for more explanation.

Noun phrases can also be placed in apposition (where two consecutive phrases refer to the same thing), as in that president, Abraham Lincoln, ... (where that president and Abraham Lincoln are in apposition). In some contexts the same can be expressed by a prepositional phrase, as in the twin curses of famine and pestilence (meaning "the twin curses" that are "famine and pestilence").

Particular forms of noun phrases include:

• phrases formed by the determiner the with an adjective, as in the homeless, the English (these are plural phrases referring to homeless people or English people in general);
• phrases with a pronoun rather than a noun as the head (see below);
• phrases consisting just of a possessive;
• infinitive and gerund phrases, in certain positions;
• certain clauses, such as that clauses and relative clauses like what he said, in certain positions.

Gender

A system of grammatical gender, whereby every [noun] was treated as either masculine, feminine or neuter, existed in [Old English], but fell out of use during the [Middle English] period. [Modern English] retains features relating to [natural gender], namely the use of certain nouns and [pronouns] (such as he and she) to refer specifically to persons or animals of one or other genders and certain others (such as it) for sexless objects – although [feminine pronouns] are sometimes used when referring to ships (and more uncommonly some airplanes and analogous machinery) and nation states.

Some aspects of gender usage in English have been influenced by the movement towards a preference for [gender-neutral language]. Animals are triple-gender nouns, being able to take masculine, feminine and neuter pronouns.[11] Generally there is no difference between male and female in English nouns. However, gender is occasionally exposed by different shapes or dissimilar words when referring to people or animals.[12]

Many nouns that mention people's roles and jobs can refer to either a masculine or a feminine subject, for instance "cousin", "teenager", "teacher", "doctor", "student", "friend", and "colleague".[12]

• Jane is my friend. She is a dentist.
• Paul is my cousin. He is a dentist.

Often the gender distinction for these neutral nouns is established by inserting the words "male" or "female".[12]

• Sam is a female doctor.
• No, he is not my boyfriend; he is just a male friend.
• I have three female cousins and two male cousins.

Rarely, nouns illustrating things with no gender are referred to with a gendered pronoun to convey familiarity. It is also standard to use the gender-neutral pronoun (it).[12]

• I love my car. She (the car) is my greatest passion.
• France is popular with her (France's) neighbors at the moment.
• I travelled from England to New York on the Queen Elizabeth; she (the Queen Elizabeth) is a great ship.

Determiners

English [determiners] constitute a relatively small class of words. They include the [articles] the, a[n], certain [demonstrative] and [interrogative] words such as this, that, and which, [possessives] such as my and whose (the role of determiner can also be played by [noun possessive] forms such as John's and the girl's), various [quantifying words] like all, some, many, various, and [numerals] (one, two, etc.). There are also many phrases (such as a couple of) that can play the role of determiners.

Determiners are used in the formation of noun phrases (see above). Many words that serve as determiners can also be used as pronouns (this, that, many, etc.)

Determiners can be used in certain combinations, such as and .

In many contexts, it is required for a noun phrase to be completed with an article or some other determiner. It is not grammatical to say just cat sat on table; one must say my cat sat on the table. The most common situations in which a complete noun phrase can be formed without a determiner are when it refers generally to a whole class or concept (as in dogs are dangerous and beauty is subjective) and when it is a name (Jane, Spain, etc.) This is discussed in more detail at [English articles] and [Zero article in English].

Pronouns

[Pronouns] are a relatively small, closed class of words that function in the place of nouns or noun phrases. They include [personal pronouns], [demonstrative pronouns], [relative pronouns], [interrogative pronouns], and some others, mainly [indefinite pronouns].

Personal

The personal pronouns of modern standard English, and the corresponding [possessive] forms, are as follows:

The second-person forms such as you are used with both singular and plural reference. In the Southern United States, [y'all] (you all) is used as a plural form, and various other phrases such as you guys are used in other places. An archaic set of second-person pronouns used for singular reference is thou, thee, thyself, thy, thine, which are still used in religious services and can be seen in older works, such as Shakespeare's - in such texts, the you set of pronouns are used for plural reference, or with singular reference as a formal [V-form]. You can also be used as an [indefinite pronoun], referring to a person in general (see [generic you]) compared to the more formal alternative, one (reflexive oneself, possessive one's).

The third-person singular forms are differentiated according to the sex of the referent. For example, she is used to refer to a female person, sometimes a female animal, and sometimes an object to which female characteristics are attributed, such as a ship or a country. A male person, and sometimes a male animal, is referred to using he. In other cases it can be used. (See [Gender in English].) The word it can also be used as a [dummy subject], in sentences like It is going to be sunny this afternoon.

The third-person plural forms such as they are sometimes used with singular reference, as a [gender-neutral pronoun], as in each employee should ensure they tidy their desk. Despite its long history, this usage is sometimes considered ungrammatical. (See [singular they].)

The possessive determiners such as my are used as determiners together with nouns, as in my old man, some of his friends. The second possessive forms like mine are used when they do not qualify a noun: as pronouns, as in mine is bigger than yours, and as predicates, as in this one is mine. Note also the construction a friend of mine (meaning "someone who is my friend"). See [English possessive] for more details.

Demonstrative and interrogative

The [demonstrative pronouns] of English are this (plural these), and that (plural those), as in these are good, I like that. Note that all four words can also be used as determiners (followed by a noun), as in those cars. They can also form the alternative pronominal expressions this/that one, these/those ones.

The [interrogative pronouns] are who, what, and which (all of them can take the suffix -ever for emphasis). The pronoun who refers to a person or people; it has an oblique form whom (though in informal contexts this is usually replaced by who), and a possessive form (pronoun or determiner) whose. The pronoun what refers to things or abstracts. The word which is used to ask about alternatives from what is seen as a closed set: which (of the books) do you like best? (It can also be an interrogative determiner: which book?; this can form the alternative pronominal expressions which one and which ones.) Which, who, and what can be either singular or plural, although who and what often take a singular verb regardless of any supposed number. For more information see [who].

All the interrogative pronouns can also be used as relative pronouns; see below for more details.

Relative

The main [relative pronouns] in English are who (with its derived forms whom and whose), which, and that.[13]

The relative pronoun which refers to things rather than persons, as in the shirt, which used to be red, is faded. For persons, who is used (the man who saw me was tall). The [oblique case] form of who is whom, as in the man whom I saw was tall, although in informal [registers] who is commonly used in place of whom.

The possessive form of who is whose (the man whose car is missing ...); however the use of whose is not restricted to persons (one can say an idea whose time has come).

The word that as a relative pronoun is normally found only in [restrictive relative clauses] (unlike which and who, which can be used in both restrictive and unrestrictive clauses). It can refer to either persons or things, and cannot follow a preposition. For example, one can say the song that [or which] I listened to yesterday, but the song to which [not to that] I listened yesterday. The relative pronoun that is usually pronounced with a reduced vowel ([schwa]), and hence differently from the demonstrative that (see [Weak and strong forms in English]). If that is not the subject of the relative clause, it can be omitted (the song I listened to yesterday).

The word what can be used to form a [free relative clause] – one that has no antecedent and that serves as a complete noun phrase in itself, as in I like what he likes. The words whatever and whichever can be used similarly, in the role of either pronouns (whatever he likes) or determiners (whatever book he likes). When referring to persons, who(ever) (and whom(ever)) can be used in a similar way (but not as determiners).

"There"

The word there is used as a pronoun in some sentences, playing the role of a [dummy subject], normally of an [intransitive verb]. The "logical subject" of the verb then appears as a [complement] after the verb.

This use of there occurs most commonly with forms of the verb be in [existential clauses], to refer to the presence or existence of something. For example: There is a heaven; There are two cups on the table; There have been a lot of problems lately. It can also be used with other verbs: There exist two major variants; There occurred a very strange incident.

The dummy subject takes the [number] (singular or plural) of the logical subject (complement), hence it takes a plural verb if the complement is plural. In informal English, however, the [contraction] there's is often used for both singular and plural.[14]

The dummy subject can undergo [inversion], Is there a test today? and Never has there been a man such as this. It can also appear without a corresponding logical subject, in short sentences and [question tags]: There wasn't a discussion, was there? There was.

The word there in such sentences has sometimes been analyzed as an [adverb], or as a dummy [predicate], rather than as a pronoun.[15] However, its identification as a pronoun is most consistent with its behavior in inverted sentences and question tags as described above.

Because the word there can also be a [deictic] adverb (meaning "at/to that place"), a sentence like There is a river could have either of two meanings: "a river exists" (with there as a pronoun), and "a river is in that place" (with there as an adverb). In speech, the adverbial there would be given [stress], while the pronoun would not – in fact the pronoun is often pronounced as a [weak form], /ðə(r)/.

Other

Other pronouns in English are often identical in form to [determiners] (especially [quantifiers]), such as many, a little, etc. Sometimes, the pronoun form is different, as with none (corresponding to the determiner no), nothing, everyone, somebody, etc. Many examples are listed as [indefinite pronouns]. Another indefinite (or impersonal) pronoun is one (with its reflexive form oneself and possessive one's), which is a more formal alternative to [generic you].[16]

Verbs

The basic form of an English verb is not generally marked by any ending, although there are certain suffixes that are frequently used to form verbs, such as -ate (formulate), -fy (electrify), and -ise/ize (realise/realize).[17] Many verbs also contain [prefixes], such un- (unmask), out- (outlast), over- (overtake), and under- (undervalue).[17] Verbs can also be formed from nouns and adjectives by [zero derivation], as with the verbs snare, nose, dry, and calm.

Most verbs have three or four inflected forms in addition to the base form: a third-person singular present tense form in -(e)s (writes, botches), a [present participle] and [gerund] form in -ing (writing), a past tense (wrote), and – though often identical to the past tense form – a [past participle] (written). Regular verbs have identical past tense and past participle forms in -ed, but there are 100 or so [irregular English verbs] with different forms (see [list]). The verbs have, do and say also have irregular third-person present tense forms (has, does /dʌz/, says /sɛz/). The verb be has the largest number of irregular forms (am, is, are in the present tense, was, were in the past tense, been for the past participle).

Most of what are often referred to as verb [tenses] (or sometimes [aspects]) in English are formed using [auxiliary verbs]. Apart from what are called the [simple present] (write, writes) and [simple past] (wrote), there are also [continuous] (progressive) forms (am/is/are/was/were writing), [perfect] forms (have/has/had written, and the perfect continuous have/has/had been writing), [future] forms (will write, will be writing, will have written, will have been writing), and [conditionals] (also called "future in the past") with would in place of will. The auxiliaries [shall and should] sometimes replace will and would in the first person. For the uses of these various verb forms, see [English verbs] and [English clause syntax].

The basic form of the verb (be, write, play) is used as the [infinitive], although there is also a "to-infinitive" (to be, to write, to play) used in many syntactical constructions. There are also infinitives corresponding to other aspects: (to) have written, (to) be writing, (to) have been writing. The second-person [imperative] is identical to the (basic) infinitive; other imperative forms may be made with let (let us go, or let's go; let them eat cake).

A form identical to the infinitive can be used as a present [subjunctive] in certain contexts: or . There is also a past subjunctive (distinct from the simple past only in the possible use of were instead of was), used in some conditional sentences and similar: if I were (or was) rich ...; were he to arrive now ...; I wish she were (or was) here. For details see [English subjunctive].

The [passive voice] is formed using the verb be (in the appropriate tense or form) with the past participle of the verb in question: cars are driven, he was killed, I am being tickled, it is nice to be pampered, etc. The performer of the action may be introduced in a prepositional phrase with by (as in they were killed by the invaders).

The [English modal verbs] consist of the core modals can, could, may, might, must, shall, should, will, would, as well as ought (to), had better, and in some uses dare and need.[18] These do not inflect for person or number,[18] and do not have infinitive or participle forms (except synonyms, as with be/being/been able (to) for the modals can/could). The modals are used with the basic infinitive form of a verb (I can swim, he may be killed, we dare not move, need they go?), except for ought, which takes to (you ought to go).

The [copula] be, along with the modal verbs and the other [auxiliaries], form a distinct class, sometimes called "[special verbs]" or simply "auxiliaries".[19] These have different syntax from ordinary [lexical verbs], especially in that they make their [interrogative] forms by plain [inversion] with the subject, and their [negative] forms by adding not after the verb (could I ...? I could not ...). Apart from those already mentioned, this class may also include used to (although the forms did he use to? and he didn't use to are also found), and sometimes have even when not an auxiliary (forms like have you a sister? and he hadn't a clue are possible, though becoming less common). It also includes the auxiliary do (does, did); this is used with the basic infinitive of other verbs (those not belonging to the "special verbs" class) to make their question and negation forms, as well as emphatic forms (do I like you?; he doesn't speak English; we did close the fridge). For more details of this, see [do-support].

Some forms of the copula and auxiliaries often appear as [contractions], as in I'm for I am, you'd for you would or you had, and John's for John is. Their negated forms with following not are also often contracted (see [§ Negation] below). For detail see [English auxiliaries and contractions].

Phrases

A verb together with its dependents, excluding its [subject], may be identified as a [verb phrase] (although this concept is not acknowledged in all theories of grammar[20]). A verb phrase headed by a [finite verb] may also be called a [predicate]. The dependents may be [objects], complements, and modifiers (adverbs or [adverbial phrases]). In English, objects and complements nearly always come after the verb; a [direct object] precedes other complements such as prepositional phrases, but if there is an [indirect object] as well, expressed without a preposition, then that precedes the direct object: give me the book, but give the book to me. Adverbial modifiers generally follow objects, although other positions are possible (see under [§ Adverbs] below). Certain verb–modifier combinations, particularly when they have independent meaning (such as take on and get up), are known as "[phrasal verbs]".

For details of possible patterns, see [English clause syntax]. See the [Non-finite clauses] section of that article for verb phrases headed by non-finite verb forms, such as infinitives and participles.

Adjectives

English [adjectives], as with other word classes, cannot in general be identified as such by their form,[21] although many of them are formed from nouns or other words by the addition of a suffix, such as -al (habitual), -ful (blissful), -ic (atomic), -ish (impish, youngish), -ous (hazardous), etc.; or from other adjectives using a prefix: disloyal, irredeemable, unforeseen, overtired.

Adjectives may be used [attributively], as part of a noun phrase (nearly always preceding the noun they modify; for exceptions see [postpositive adjective]), as in the big house, or [predicatively], as in the house is big. Certain adjectives are restricted to one or other use; for example, drunken is attributive (a drunken sailor), while drunk is usually predicative (the sailor was drunk).

Comparison

Many adjectives have [comparative] and [superlative] forms in -er and -est,[22] such as faster and fastest (from the positive form fast). Spelling rules which maintain pronunciation apply to suffixing adjectives just as they do for similar treatment of [regular past tense formation]; these cover consonant doubling (as in bigger and biggest, from big) and the change of y to i after consonants (as in happier and happiest, from happy).

The adjectives good and bad have the irregular forms better, best and worse, worst; also far becomes farther, farthest or further, furthest. The adjective old (for which the regular older and oldest are usual) also has the irregular forms elder and eldest, these generally being restricted to use in comparing [siblings] and in certain independent uses. For the comparison of adverbs, see [Adverbs] below.

Many adjectives, however, particularly those that are longer and less common, do not have inflected comparative and superlative forms. Instead, they can be qualified with more and most, as in beautiful, more beautiful, most beautiful (this construction is also sometimes used even for adjectives for which inflected forms do exist).

Certain adjectives are classed as [ungradable].[22] These represent properties that cannot be compared on a scale; they simply apply or do not, as with pregnant, dead, unique. Consequently, comparative and superlative forms of such adjectives are not normally used, except in a figurative, humorous or imprecise context. Similarly, such adjectives are not normally qualified with modifiers of degree such as very and fairly, although with some of them it is idiomatic to use adverbs such as completely. Another type of adjectives sometimes considered ungradable is those that represent an extreme degree of some property, such as delicious and terrified.

Phrases

An [adjective phrase] is a group of words that plays the role of an adjective in a sentence. It usually has a single adjective as its [head], to which [modifiers] and [complements] may be added.[23]

Adjectives can be modified by a preceding adverb or adverb phrase, as in very warm, truly imposing, more than a little excited. Some can also be preceded by a noun or quantitative phrase, as in fat-free, two-metre-long.

Complements following the adjective may include:

• prepositional phrases: proud of him, angry at the screen, keen on breeding toads;
• infinitive phrases: anxious to solve the problem, easy to pick up;
• content clauses, i.e. that clauses and certain others: certain that he was right, unsure where they are;
• after comparatives, phrases or clauses with than: better than you, smaller than I had imagined.

An adjective phrase may include both modifiers before the adjective and a complement after it, as in very difficult to put away.

Adjective phrases containing complements after the adjective cannot normally be used as attributive adjectives before a noun. Sometimes they are used [attributively after the noun], as in a woman proud of being a midwife (where they may be converted into relative clauses: a woman who is proud of being a midwife), but it is wrong to say *a proud of being a midwife woman. Exceptions include very brief and often established phrases such as easy-to-use. (Certain complements can be moved to after the noun, leaving the adjective before the noun, as in a better man than you, a hard nut to crack.)

Certain attributive adjective phrases are formed from other parts of speech, without any adjective as their head, as in a two-bedroom house, a no-jeans policy.

Adverbs

[Adverbs] perform a wide range of functions. They typically modify verbs (or verb phrases), adjectives (or adjectival phrases), or other adverbs (or adverbial phrases).[24] However, adverbs also sometimes qualify noun phrases (; ), pronouns and determiners (), prepositional phrases (), or whole sentences, to provide contextual comment or indicate an attitude ().[25] They can also indicate a relationship between clauses or sentences ().[25]

Many English adverbs are formed from adjectives by adding the ending -ly, as in hopefully, widely, theoretically (for details of spelling and etymology, see -ly). Certain words can be used as both adjectives and adverbs, such as fast, straight, and hard; these are [flat adverbs]. In earlier usage more flat adverbs were accepted in formal usage; many of these survive in idioms and colloquially. () Some adjectives can also be used as flat adverbs when they actually describe the subject. (, not **The streaker ran nakedly.) The adverb corresponding to the adjective good is well (note that bad forms the regular badly, although ill is occasionally used in some phrases).

There are also many adverbs that are not derived from adjectives,[24] including adverbs of time, of frequency, of place, of degree and with other meanings. Some suffixes that are commonly used to form adverbs from nouns are -ward[s] (as in homeward[s]) and -wise (as in lengthwise).

Most adverbs form comparatives and superlatives by modification with more and most: often, more often, most often; smoothly, more smoothly, most smoothly (see also [comparison of adjectives], above). However, a few adverbs retain irregular inflection for [comparative] and [superlative] forms:[24] much, more, most; a little, less, least; well, better, best; badly, worse, worst; far, further (farther), furthest (farthest); or follow the regular adjectival inflection: fast, faster, fastest; soon, sooner, soonest; etc.

Adverbs indicating the manner of an action are generally placed after the verb and its objects (), although other positions are often possible (). Many adverbs of frequency, degree, certainty, etc. (such as often, always, almost, probably, and various others such as just) tend to be placed before the verb (), although if there is an auxiliary or other "special verb" (see [§ Verbs] above), then the normal position for such adverbs is after that special verb (or after the first of them, if there is more than one): ; ; ; . Adverbs that provide a connection with previous information (such as next, then, however), and those that provide the context (such as time or place) for a sentence, are typically placed at the start of the sentence: [26]

A special type of adverb is the adverbial particle used to form [phrasal verbs] (such as up in pick up, on in get on, etc.) If such a verb also has an object, then the particle may precede or follow the object, although it will normally follow the object if the object is a pronoun (pick the pen up or pick up the pen, but pick it up).

Phrases

An [adverb phrase] is a phrase that acts as an adverb within a sentence.[27] An adverb phrase may have an adverb as its [head], together with any modifiers (other adverbs or adverb phrases) and complements, analogously to the [adjective phrases] described above. For example: very sleepily; all too suddenly; oddly enough; perhaps shockingly for us.

Another very common type of adverb phrase is the [prepositional phrase], which consists of a preposition and its object: in the pool; after two years; for the sake of harmony.

Prepositions

[Prepositions] form a closed word class,[25] although there are also certain phrases that serve as prepositions, such as in front of. A single preposition may have a variety of meanings, often including temporal, spatial and abstract. Many words that are prepositions can also serve as adverbs. Examples of common English prepositions (including phrasal instances) are of, in, on, over, under, to, from, with, in front of, behind, opposite, by, before, after, during, through, in spite of or despite, between, among, etc.

A preposition is usually used with a noun phrase as its [complement]. A preposition together with its complement is called a [prepositional phrase].[28] Examples are in England, under the table, after six pleasant weeks, between the land and the sea. A prepositional phrase can be used as a complement or post-modifier of a noun in a noun phrase, as in the man in the car, the start of the fight; as a complement of a verb or adjective, as in deal with the problem, proud of oneself; or generally as an adverb phrase (see above).

English allows the use of ["stranded" prepositions]. This can occur in interrogative and [relative clauses], where the interrogative or relative pronoun that is the preposition's complement is moved to the start ([fronted]), leaving the preposition in place. This kind of structure is avoided in some kinds of formal English. For example:

• What are you talking about? (Possible alternative version: About what are you talking?)
• The song that you were listening to ... (more formal: The song to which you were listening ...)

Notice that in the second example the relative pronoun that could be omitted.

Stranded prepositions can also arise in [passive voice] constructions and other uses of passive [past participial phrases], where the complement in a prepositional phrase can become [zero] in the same way that a verb's direct object would: it was looked at; I will be operated on; get your teeth seen to. The same can happen in certain uses of [infinitive] phrases: he is nice to talk to; this is the page to make copies of.