English

Topic 1. Categories of international crime and the effectiveness of punishment.

Тема 1.    Категорії міжнародних злочинів і ефективність покарання.

1. Certain crimes are international by their nature.
2. They may be carried out in more than one country in which case they are considered trans-border crimes.
3. Crimes such as trafficking in persons, participating in the slave trade and committing various terrorist offences are governed by both international treaties and customary Legal Obligations.
4. Crimes committed by national governments are in the core of international law.
5. The first modern international Tribunal was held in Nurnberg following world war 2 to try military and civilian leaders of Nazi Germany.
6. The Nurnberg trials prosecuted three categories of offenses: Crimes against peace, war crimes and crimes against humanity.
7. Shades of the effectiveness of various forms of the treatment of criminals has led some researchers to the conclusion that nothing works.
8. In a more positive light available studies seem too lenient penalties and sever measures about equally effective in preventing future criminality.

Topic 2. Cybercrime in the 21st Century

Тема 2. Кіберзлочинність у ХХІ столітті

1. Cybercrime is a crime in which a computer is the object on the crime (hacking, spamming) or is used as a tool to commit an offence.
2. Criminals who reform those illegal activities are often referred to as hackers.
3. One of the major problems with the low level of disclosure of IT-related crimes is that people lack the expertise to combat cybercrime.
4. The problem of combating cybercrime is approached very carefully in the world and the governments are directly involved in its solution.
5. After all the amount of information that flows on the Internet daily, it is simply unrealistic to control on your own.
6. That’s why in 2009 the US government in the Pentagon has started creating its own cyber warfare the national security agency which also manages information Warface.

Topic 3. Weapon of mass destruction.

Тема 3.   Зброя масового знищення, її переваги і небезпеки.

1. Among modern means of warfare, a special place is occupied by weapons of mass destruction which include nuclear, chemical, bacteriological weapons.
2. Nuclear weapons are one of the main weapons of mass destruction.
3. It is able to just dropped a large number of people in a short time to demolish homes in large areas.
4. The striking factors of weapons of mass distraction tend to continue to strike for a long time.
5. It also demoralizes the troops and the civilian population.
6. Countries such as the UK, the Russian Federation, the USA, France and China have a nuclear weapon.
7. Using these weapons will have catastrophic consequences for humanity that so why the world is working hard to ban all types of weapons of mass destruction.

Topic 4. Terrorism.

Тема 4. Тероризм як одна з небезпек сьогодення.

1. Terrorism is creating and exploitation of fear for bringing about political change
2. All terrorist acts involve evident or the threat of violence.
3. Those violent acts are committed by nongovernmental groups or individuals.
4. Terrorist attempts not only to saw panic but also to undermine confidence in the government and political leadership of their target country.
5. Terrorist groups generally have few members and few organizational resources.
6. Terrorism is evolving constantly to overcome governmental countermeasures designed to defeat it.
7. Also, there is a possibility that terrorists may use such means of attack as chemical, biological. radiological or nuclear weapons.
8. Future terrorist tactics could include cyber terrorism or electronically warfare.
9. The highly individual nature of terrorism causes and the complexity of its fundamental characteristics present enormous challenges to those who must effectively resist this threat.

Topic 5. Arms control

Тема 5. Контроль над озброєннями як запорука забезпечення мирного існування.

1. Any international control or limitation of the use of weapons based on the premise that the continued existence of certain national military establishment is inevitable.
2. The concept implies some form of collaboration to diminish the likelihood of war or to limit its destructiveness.
3. Firstly we should know the difference between disarmament and arms control.
4. The complete assignment may involve the elimination of a country's entire military capacity.
5. Whereas disarmament agreements usually directly prohibit the procession or production of weapons, arms control agreements often proceed by setting limitations on the testing deployment or use of certain types of weapons.
6. Disarmament conference with a large number of participants has often degenerated into public spectacles with shooting matches between the delegations of the countries that have resulted in increased tensions.

Topic 6.  Current trends in higher education.

Тема 6. Сучасні тенденції розвитку вищої освіти.

1. Current development trans generally influence the reform of education which provides for the formation of a network of higher education institutions which according to forms programs, terms of study would satisfy the needs of each person.
2. Raising the educational and cultural level of society creating conditions for lifelong learning.
3. In Ukraine the reason for higher education to the level of higher education in developing countries.
4. The strategic goals of reforming higher education in Ukraine are the transformation of educational services indicators.
5. This process should be based on the following process it is a national idea of higher education the content of which is to preserve and enhance national educational traditions.
6. The development of higher education should be considered in the context of trends in the development of world education system including European.
7. That’s why development needs in higher education are very important nowadays.

Topic 7. Bolong process: program and extracurricular activities of students.

Тема 7. Болонський процес: програмна і позапрограмна діяльність студентів

1. The Bologna Process is a process of convergence and harmonization of the educational system of European countries within the framework of the Bologna agreement in order to create a single European higher education area.
2. From the beginning, this process boss intended to increase the competitiveness and attractiveness of European higher education.
3. Promote students mobility,  facilitate employment thought the introduction of a system that makes it easy to determine the level of preparation and degree of graduates.
4. Students have a lot of types of activities: learning new materials, working in groups, have an interesting task, visiting a different exhibition, farms, conferences.
5. It shows us how existing and diverse students lives can be.
6. Today 48 European countries including Ukraine on the Bologna process participants.

Topic 8. The rising unemployment rate in a global economic downturn.

Тема 8. Зростаючий рівень безробіття в умовах глобального економічного спаду

1. Nowadays the problem of unemployment is becoming one of the most popular problems in the world because of such a phenomenon in society in tails and a number of different problems: job and non-production of that national currency.
2. Today the issue of unemployment has become especially relevant for all countries of the world cuts the most developed ones, such as the countries of the EU.
3. Unemployment is an issue when part of the economically active population who can and wants to work, looks for a job and doesn’t find it.
4. The main courses of unemployment are structural changes in the economy, which are reflected.
5. In the introduction of new technologies, economic competition in the labour market, economic recession etc.
6. That’s why states governments need to solve such a problem to prevent another.
7. One of such ways can be providing jobs in nonprofit oriented areas but related to work in the public interest, for example, the environmental protection.

Topic 9. The importance of international organizations in today’s society.

Тема 9. Значення міжнародних організацій у сучасному суспільстві

1. Nowadays the world has a lot of problems: Global warming, terrorism, a weapon of mass distraction, war face and others.
2. That’s why the states need special institutions which can regulate and prevent such issues.
3. And one of them is international organizations, which are formal institutional structures transcending national boundaries.
4. They are created by a multilateral agreement among nation-states.
5. Their purpose is to for foster international cooperation in areas such as security, law, economic and social matters and diplomacy.
6. There are a lot of known 10s, the United Nations and its structures, the EU, the world trade organization and offers.
7. Their leaders strive for peace all around the world, try to solve conflicts between different states and improve international relations between all countries.
8. They use negotiations and meetings as one of the main instruments to achieve their goals.
9. That’s why 10s are really important today and without their help it will be more difficult to solve world problems.

Topic 10. European union

Тема 10. Європейський союз як геополітичне формування

1. European Union, organization of European countries dedicated to increasing economic integration and strengthening corporation among its members.
2. The European Union headquarters is located in Brussels, Belgium.
3. There are 27 countries in the EU.
4. The EU was formally established on November 1, 1993.
5. It is the most recent in the series of corporative organizations in Europe that organized with the European Coal and steel community of 1951, which became leave it open community in 1967.
6. The original members of the EU Belgium, France, West Germany, Greece, Italy, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands.
7. Subsequently, these nations were joined by Denmark, Ireland, the UK, Portugal, Spain.
8. In 1991 the governments on the 12 member states signed the Maastricht treaty.
9. It transformed the EC into the EU.
10. The European Union has a number of objectives.
11. Its principal goal is to promote and expand corporation among member states.
12. Under the Maastricht treaty, European citizenship was given to citizens of each member states.

Topic 11. United Nations: history, functions, perspectives.

Тема 11. Організація об’єднаних націй: історія, функції, перспективи

1. United Nations, the international organization of countries created to promote world peace and cooperation.
2. That you needed nation was founded after World War 2 ended 1945.
3. Its mission is to maintain world peace, develop good relationships between countries, promote cooperation in solving the problems of the world, and encourage respect for human rights.
4. The United Nations is an organization of countries that agreed to cooperate with one another.
5. It brings together countries that are rich and poor, large and small and have different social and political systems.
6. Each country is also expected to pay dues to support the United Nations.
7. The United Nations has 193 members, including nearly every country in the world.
8. There are 6 distinct bodies that have different functions: the General assembly, the security council, the secretary, the economic and social council, the international court of justice, the Trusteeship council.
9. The united nation faces constant changes.
10. It must continually secure the cooperation of its member nations because the organization has little independent power or authority.
11. But getting that support is not always easy.

Topic 12. NATO

Тема 12. НАТО: дебати щодо військового альянсу

1. North Atlantic Treaty organization, regional defence alliance created by the North Atlantic Treaty.
2. Natures purpose is to enhance the stability, well-being, and freedom of its members so it’s a system of collective security.
3. Members of the alliance agreed to defend one another from attack by other nations of by terrorist groups.
4. Neto has its headquarters in Brussels, Belgium.
5. The North Atlantic Treaty was a signet on April 4, 1949, at the beginning of the cold war.
6. The original purpose of NATO waste defends Western Europe against possible attack by communist nations.
7. Now  NATO consist of 29 members.
8. Over the gears, the existence of NATO has led to closer ties among its members and to a growing community of interests.
9. The treaty itself has provided a model for other collective security agreements.
10. Nature activities are no longer confined only to Europe.
11. In 2003 for the first time in its history, Neto took up please keep in activities outside of Europe by deploying troops in Afghanistan.

Topic 13. Tolerance in the face of increasing cultural diversity.

Тема 13. Толерантність в умовах зростаючого культурного розмаїття.

1. The meaning of deliverance is acceptance and understanding.
2. Globalization has made it easier for different communities to connect, meet and interact with each other.
3. Today the world enjoys greater levels of tolerance and diversity.
4. However instance of intolerance and prejudice still occur and in some parts, have got out of control.
5. But where there is discrimination, there cannot be peace.
6. Intolerance leads to violence and instability is different groups resort force and aggression against each other.
7. Peace can only come when people become free from intolerance and willing to understand each other’s differences.
8. If people are unable to tolerate each other, they become angry and frustrated.
9. Being able to accept one another’s differences can have a positive effect on one’s well-being.
10. Being tolerant allows one to think mom Bradley and enjoy inner peace.
11. Tolerance is not a moral choice but a moral necessity for the Commonwealth of Nations.

Topic 14. Language as a means of cultural identification in a global context.

Тема 14. Мова як засіб культурної ідентифікації у глобальному контексті

1. The emergency of language was the giant step that made possible to remarkable complexity of human culture.
2. Though language human is able to use symbols and communicate through sounds and their arrangement into words and sentence.
3. Many animals can be tough to respond to language, but not as true symbols.
4. Only humans can communicate in the systematic language.
5. Any language is flexible enough to expand in vocabulary and structure of the culture of society becomes more complex.
6. Language and culture are not, however, related to the genetic constitution or raise.
7. A Chinese child raised in the North American family will speak North American English and will behave socially and culturally as a North American child.
8. A person of any race can learn any human language and thought that language acquires any human culture.

Topic 15. Global environmental problems and their threat to humanity.

Тема 15. Глобальні екологічні проблеми та їх загроза людству

1. Some of the most serious charges in the environment accurate in the last few decades of the 20th century catalyzing environmental concern around the globe.
2. The first global threat is air pollution and climate change.
3. The second is deforestation. Today, about 30% of the planet is covered by Forrest.
4. To solve this problem people must replant the planet with native tree spies. 
5. The 3rd environmental problem is species extinction.
6. On land, wild animals are being hunted to extinction.
7. The red list of threatened and endangered species continues to grow.
8. Hast but not least problem is over-pollution.
9. Human pollution continues to grow rapidly worldwide.
10. So nowadays there are a lot of environmental problems.
11. Many 10s were created to solve them.
12. We must do everything to protect our world.

Topic 16. International cooperation to overcome global environmental problems.

Тема 16. Міжнародна співпраця з метою подолання глобальних екологічних проблем.

1. International Cooperation is necessary to solve global problems, such as poverty, global warming, ozone depletion and loss of biological diversification.
2. The first large scale multilateral environmental even worse the conference on the international protection of nature held in Bern in 1913.
3. Today the number of international conventions and agreements reaches 100, and the number of bilateral conventions a few thousands.
4. Some of the international organizations were specially created for the purposes of environmental protection and others gradually joined to the environment work.
5. The largest international organization in the sphere of environmental protection is the international union for a conversation of nature created in 1948.
6. As a member of the United Nations, Ukraine is partly to 18 international agreements of environmental issues, 20 conventions, more than 10 bilateral agreements, fulfilling international obligations for the protection of the environment.

Topic 17. Modern technologies artificial intelligence and nanotechnology.

Translation as a Notion

THEORETICAL ASPECTS OF TRANSLATION

Translation as a term and notion is of polysemantic nature, its common and most general meaning being mostly associated with the action or process of rendering the meaning of a source language word, word-group, sentence or passage (larger text) in the target language or with the result of the process of rendering.

The term «interpretation» is synonymous to «translation» and is used to denote the way or manner of presenting the idea of the work in translation orally (as well as its aesthetic, religious, political, pragmatic background and other qualitative characteristics of the work under translation). Interpretation may also denote the style of a peculiar translator and his way of presenting a particular literary work.

Apart from the two mentioned above, there are some other terms in the theory of translation which may seem ambiguous to the inexperienced student: accurate translation точний переклад; faithful translation адекватний/вірний переклад; faithfulness of translation/interpretation адекватність/вірність перекладу/ тлумачення; fidelity (or faithfulness) of translation/interpretation вірність, адекватність перекладу; equivalent translation/interpretation еквівалентний переклад; free interpretation вільний переклад, перелицювання; free adaptation вільний переклад, переробка; free interpretation вільний переспів, перелицювання; free/loose translation вільний переклад, переказ; consecutive interpretation послідовний переклад, усне тлумачення; off-hand translation/ interpretation переклад/тлумачення без попередньої підготовки (з голосу чи з аркуша); rehash вільна переробка (вдала чи невдала) твору; sight translation/interpretation (translation at sight) переклад/ усне тлумачення з аркуша/тексту; simultaneous translation/ interpretation синхронний переклад; rough translation робочий варіант перекладу, чорновий переклад and some others.

Significance of Translation

Practically not a single contact at the international level or even between any two foreign persons speaking different languages can be established or maintained without the help of translators or interpreters.

Equally important is translating and interpreting for uninterrupted functioning of different international bodies (conferences, symposia, congresses, etc.) to say nothing about the bodies like the EEC (European Economic Council), the IMF (International Monetary Fund) or the United Nations Organization with its numerous councils, assemblies, commissions, committees and sub- committees.

Numerous branches of national economies too can keep up with the up-to-date development and progress in the modern world thanks to the everyday translating/interpreting of scientific and technical matter covering various fields of human knowledge and activities. Translating is also a perfect means of sharing achievements and enriching national languages, literatures and cultures (operas, artistic films).

It promotes the enrichment of lexicon and of the means of expression in the target language. Due to the unceasing everyday political, economic, cultural and other contacts between different nations the lexicon of all languages constantly increases.

Ways of Translating

1.    Literal translating, which is to be employed when dealing with separate words whose surface form and structure, as well as their lexical meaning in the source language and in the target language, fully coincide (administrator адміністратор, director директор, region регіон, hotel/motel готель/ мотель, hydrometer гідрометр, Tom Том, etc.)

2.   Verbal translating is also employed at lexeme/word level. But unlike literal translating it never conveys the orthographic or the sounding form of the source language units, but their denotative meaning only: fearful страшний, fearless безстрашний, helpless безпорадний, incorrect неправильний, mistrust недовір'я (недовіра), superprofit надприбуток, non-interference невтручання, weightlessness невагомість etc.

3.    Word-for-word translation is another method of rendering sense. It presents a consecutive verbal translation though at the level of word-groups and sentences.(You are right to begin with* ви маєте рацію, щоб почати з instead of Почнемо з того/припустимо, що ви маєте рацію/що ви праві.)

4.    Interlinear translating is a conventional term for a strictly faithful rendering of sense expressed by word-groups and sentences at the level of some text. ( The sentence Who took my book? admits only one word-for-word variant, namely: Хто взяв мою книжку? In interlinear translation, however, the full content of this sentence can be faithfully rendered with the help of two and sometimes even three equivalent variants: У кого моя книжка? Хто брав/узяв мою книжку?).

5.    Literary translation represents the highest level of a translator's activity. Any type of matter skillfully turned into the target lan- guage, especially by a regular master of the pen may acquire the faithfulness and the literary (or artistic) standard equal to that of the source language.

Literary artistic translation presents a faithful conveying of content and of the artistic merits only of a fiction/belles-lettres passage or work. The latter may be either of a prose or a poetic genre (verse).

Literary proper translation is performed on any other than fiction/belles-lettres passages/works. These may include scientific or technical matter, didactic matter (different text-books), business correspondence, the language of documents, epistolary texts, etc. The number of phrases and sentences in a literary translation is never the same as in the source language passage/work, neither are the same means of expression or the number and quality of stylistic devices per paragraph/syntactic superstructure. All these transformations are made in order to achieve faithfulness in rendering content and expressiveness of the passage/ work under translation. Transformations are also used to convey the features of style and in still greater measure the genre peculiarities of the

works/passages under translation.

Descriptive translating. It is the notional meaning of the source language unit and not always its structural form that is to be rendered in the target language. Depending on the notion expressed by the source language word/lexeme, it may be conveyed in the target language sometimes through a word-combination or even through a sentence, i.e., descriptively: indulge робити собі приємність у чомусь, віддаватися втіхам; infamous той (та, те), що має ганебну славу; inessentials предмети не першої необхідності, предмети розкоші.

Antonymic translation is employed for the sake of achieving faithfulness in conveying content or the necessary expressiveness of sense units. mind your own business не втручайся не в свої справи.