Computer

1. ^ "computer (n.)". Online Etymology Dictionary.
   


2. ^ According to Schmandt-Besserat 1981, these clay containers contained tokens, the total of which were the count of objects being transferred. The containers thus served as something of a bill of lading or an accounts book. In order to avoid breaking open the containers, first, clay impressions of the tokens were placed on the outside of the containers, for the count; the shapes of the impressions were abstracted into stylized marks; finally, the abstract marks were systematically used as numerals; these numerals were finally formalized as numbers. Eventually (Schmandt-Besserat estimates it took 4000 years Archived 30 January 2012 at the Wayback Machine ) the marks on the outside of the containers were all that were needed to convey the count, and the clay containers evolved into clay tablets with marks for the count.
   


3. ^ Robson, Eleanor (2008), Mathematics in Ancient Iraq, ISBN 978-0-691-09182-2. p. 5: calculi were in use in Iraq for primitive accounting systems as early as 3200–3000 BCE, with commodity-specific counting representation systems. Balanced accounting was in use by 3000–2350 BCE, and a sexagesimal number system was in use 2350–2000 BCE.
   


4. ^ The Antikythera Mechanism Research Project Archived 28 April 2008 at the Wayback Machine, The Antikythera Mechanism Research Project. Retrieved 1 July 2007.
   


5. ^ G. Wiet, V. Elisseeff, P. Wolff, J. Naudu (1975). History of Mankind, Vol 3: The Great medieval Civilisations, p. 649. George Allen & Unwin Ltd, UNESCO.
   


6. ^ Fuat Sezgin "Catalogue of the Exhibition of the Institute for the History of Arabic-Islamic Science (at the Johann Wolfgang Goethe University", Frankfurt, Germany) Frankfurt Book Fair 2004, pp. 35 & 38.
   


7. ^ Charette, François (2006). "Archaeology: High tech from Ancient Greece". Nature. 444 (7119): 551–552. Bibcode:2006Natur.444..551C. doi:10.1038/444551a. PMID 17136077.
   


8. ^ Bedini, Silvio A.; Maddison, Francis R. (1966). "Mechanical Universe: The Astrarium of Giovanni de' Dondi". Transactions of the American Philosophical Society. 56 (5): 1–69. doi:10.2307/1006002. JSTOR 1006002.
   


9. ^ Price, Derek de S. (1984). "A History of Calculating Machines". IEEE Micro. 4 (1): 22–52. doi:10.1109/MM.1984.291305.
   


10. ^ Őren, Tuncer (2001). "Advances in Computer and Information Sciences: From Abacus to Holonic Agents" (PDF). Turk J Elec Engin. 9 (1): 63–70.
    


11. ^ Donald Routledge Hill (1985). "Al-Biruni's mechanical calendar", Annals of Science 42, pp. 139–163.
    


12. ^ "The Writer Automaton, Switzerland". chonday.com. 11 July 2013.
    


13. ^ a b Ray Girvan, "The revealed grace of the mechanism: computing after Babbage" Archived 3 November 2012 at the Wayback Machine, Scientific Computing World, May/June 2003
    


14. ^ Halacy, Daniel Stephen (1970). Charles Babbage, Father of the Computer. Crowell-Collier Press. ISBN 978-0-02-741370-0.
    


15. ^ "Babbage". Online stuff. Science Museum. 19 January 2007. Retrieved 1 August 2012.
    


16. ^ "Let's build Babbage's ultimate mechanical computer". opinion. New Scientist. 23 December 2010. Retrieved 1 August 2012.
    


17. ^ a b c d The Modern History of Computing. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 2017.
    


18. ^ Zuse, Horst. "Part 4: Konrad Zuse's Z1 and Z3 Computers". The Life and Work of Konrad Zuse. EPE Online. Archived from the original on 1 June 2008. Retrieved 17 June 2008.
    


19. ^ Zuse, Konrad (2010) [1984], The Computer – My Life Translated by McKenna, Patricia and Ross, J. Andrew from: Der Computer, mein Lebenswerk (1984), Berlin/Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag, ISBN 978-3-642-08151-4
    


20. ^ Salz Trautman, Peggy (20 April 1994). "A Computer Pioneer Rediscovered, 50 Years On". The New York Times.
    


21. ^ Zuse, Konrad (1993). Der Computer. Mein Lebenswerk (in German) (3rd ed.). Berlin: Springer-Verlag. p. 55. ISBN 978-3-540-56292-4.
    


22. ^ "Crash! The Story of IT: Zuse". Archived from the original on 18 September 2016. Retrieved 1 June 2016.
    


23. ^ Rojas, R. (1998). "How to make Zuse's Z3 a universal computer". IEEE Annals of the History of Computing. 20 (3): 51–54. doi:10.1109/85.707574.
    


24. ^ Rojas, Raúl. "How to Make Zuse's Z3 a Universal Computer" (PDF).
    


25. ^ 15 January 1941 notice in the Des Moines Register,
    


26. ^ Arthur W. Burks (1989). The First Electronic Computer. ISBN 0472081047.
    


27. ^ a b c d Copeland, Jack (2006), Colossus: The Secrets of Bletchley Park's Codebreaking Computers, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 101–115, ISBN 978-0-19-284055-4
    


28. ^ Miller, Joe (10 November 2014). "The woman who cracked Enigma cyphers". BBC News. Retrieved 14 October 2018.
    


29. ^ Bearne, Suzanne (24 July 2018). "Meet the female codebreakers of Bletchley Park". the Guardian. Retrieved 14 October 2018.
    


30. ^ Bletchley's code-cracking Colossus, BBC News, 2 February 2010, retrieved 19 October 2012
    


31. ^ "Colossus – The Rebuild Story". The National Museum of Computing. Archived from the original on 18 April 2015. Retrieved 7 January 2014.
    


32. ^ Randell, Brian; Fensom, Harry; Milne, Frank A. (15 March 1995), "Obituary: Allen Coombs", The Independent, retrieved 18 October 2012
    


33. ^ Fensom, Jim (8 November 2010), "Harry Fensom obituary", The Guardian, retrieved 17 October 2012
    


34. ^ John Presper Eckert Jr. and John W. Mauchly, Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer, United States Patent Office, US Patent 3,120,606, filed 26 June 1947, issued 4 February 1964, and invalidated 19 October 1973 after court ruling on Honeywell v. Sperry Rand.
    
35. ^ "Generations of Computer". techiwarehouse.com. Archived from the original on 2 July 2015. Retrieved 7 January 2014.
    


36. ^ Turing, A. M. (1937). "On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem". Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society. 2. 42 (1): 230–265. doi:10.1112/plms/s2-42.1.230.
    


37. ^ "von Neumann ... firmly emphasized to me, and to others I am sure, that the fundamental conception is owing to Turing—insofar as not anticipated by Babbage, Lovelace and others." Letter by Stanley Frankel to Brian Randell, 1972, quoted in Jack Copeland (2004) The Essential Turing, p22.
    


38. ^ Enticknap, Nicholas (Summer 1998), "Computing's Golden Jubilee", Resurrection (20), ISSN 0958-7403, archived from the original on 9 January 2012, retrieved 19 April 2008
    


39. ^ "Early computers at Manchester University", Resurrection, 1 (4), Summer 1992, ISSN 0958-7403, archived from the original on 28 August 2017, retrieved 7 July 2010
    


40. ^ Early Electronic Computers (1946–51), University of Manchester, archived from the original on 5 January 2009, retrieved 16 November 2008
    


41. ^ Napper, R. B. E., Introduction to the Mark 1, The University of Manchester, archived from the original on 26 October 2008, retrieved 4 November 2008
    


42. ^ Computer Conservation Society, Our Computer Heritage Pilot Study: Deliveries of Ferranti Mark I and Mark I Star computers, archived from the original on 11 December 2016, retrieved 9 January 2010
    


43. ^ Lavington, Simon. "A brief history of British computers: the first 25 years (1948–1973)". British Computer Society. Retrieved 10 January 2010.
    


44. ^ Lee, Thomas H. (2003). The Design of CMOS Radio-Frequency Integrated Circuits (PDF). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781139643771.
    


45. ^ Puers, Robert; Baldi, Livio; Voorde, Marcel Van de; Nooten, Sebastiaan E. van (2017). Nanoelectronics: Materials, Devices, Applications, 2 Volumes. John Wiley & Sons. p. 14. ISBN 9783527340538.
    


46. ^ a b c Moskowitz, Sanford L. (2016). Advanced Materials Innovation: Managing Global Technology in the 21st century. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 165–167. ISBN 9780470508923.
    


47. ^ Lavington, Simon (1998), A History of Manchester Computers (2 ed.), Swindon: The British Computer Society, pp. 34–35
    


48. ^ a b Cooke-Yarborough, E. H. (June 1998), "Some early transistor applications in the UK", Engineering Science & Education Journal, 7 (3): 100–106, doi:10.1049/esej:19980301, ISSN 0963-7346, retrieved 7 June 2009 (subscription required)
    


49. ^ Cooke-Yarborough, E.H. (1957). Introduction to Transistor Circuits. Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd. p. 139.
    


50. ^ "1960: Metal Oxide Semiconductor (MOS) Transistor Demonstrated". The Silicon Engine: A Timeline of Semiconductors in Computers. Computer History Museum. Retrieved 31 August 2019.
    


51. ^ Motoyoshi, M. (2009). "Through-Silicon Via (TSV)" (PDF). Proceedings of the IEEE. 97 (1): 43–48. doi:10.1109/JPROC.2008.2007462. ISSN 0018-9219.
    


52. ^ "Transistors Keep Moore's Law Alive". EETimes. 12 December 2018. Retrieved 18 July 2019.
    


53. ^ "Who Invented the Transistor?". Computer History Museum. 4 December 2013. Retrieved 20 July 2019.
    


54. ^ a b Hittinger, William C. (1973). "Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Technology". Scientific American. 229 (2): 48–59. Bibcode:1973SciAm.229b..48H. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0873-48. ISSN 0036-8733. JSTOR 24923169.
    


55. ^ Malmstadt, Howard V.; Enke, Christie G.; Crouch, Stanley R. (1994). Making the Right Connections: Microcomputers and Electronic Instrumentation. American Chemical Society. p. 389. ISBN 9780841228610. The relative simplicity and low power requirements of MOSFETs have fostered today's microcomputer revolution.
    


56. ^ Fossum, Jerry G.; Trivedi, Vishal P. (2013). Fundamentals of Ultra-Thin-Body MOSFETs and FinFETs. Cambridge University Press. p. vii. ISBN 9781107434493.
    


57. ^ "Remarks by Director Iancu at the 2019 International Intellectual Property Conference". United States Patent and Trademark Office. 10 June 2019. Retrieved 20 July 2019.
    


58. ^ "Dawon Kahng". National Inventors Hall of Fame. Retrieved 27 June 2019.
    


59. ^ "Martin Atalla in Inventors Hall of Fame, 2009". Retrieved 21 June 2013.
    


60. ^ "Triumph of the MOS Transistor". YouTube. Computer History Museum. 6 August 2010. Retrieved 21 July 2019.
    


61. ^ "The Hapless Tale of Geoffrey Dummer" Archived 11 May 2013 at the Wayback Machine, (n.d.), (HTML), Electronic Product News, accessed 8 July 2008.
    


62. ^ Kilby, Jack (2000), Nobel lecture (PDF), Stockholm: Nobel Foundation, retrieved 15 May 2008
    


63. ^ The Chip that Jack Built, (c. 2008), (HTML), Texas Instruments, Retrieved 29 May 2008.
    


64. ^ Jack S. Kilby, Miniaturized Electronic Circuits, United States Patent Office, US Patent 3,138,743, filed 6 February 1959, issued 23 June 1964.
    


65. ^ Winston, Brian (1998). Media Technology and Society: A History : From the Telegraph to the Internet. Routledge. p. 221. ISBN 978-0-415-14230-4.
    


66. ^ Saxena, Arjun N. (2009). Invention of Integrated Circuits: Untold Important Facts. World Scientific. p. 140. ISBN 9789812814456.
    


67. ^ a b "Integrated circuits". NASA. Retrieved 13 August 2019.
    


68. ^ Robert Noyce's Unitary circuit, US patent 2981877, "Semiconductor device-and-lead structure", issued 1961-04-25, assigned to Fairchild Semiconductor Corporation 
    


69. ^ "1959: Practical Monolithic Integrated Circuit Concept Patented". Computer History Museum. Retrieved 13 August 2019.
    


70. ^ Lojek, Bo (2007). History of Semiconductor Engineering. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 120. ISBN 9783540342588.
    


71. ^ Bassett, Ross Knox (2007). To the Digital Age: Research Labs, Start-up Companies, and the Rise of MOS Technology. Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 46. ISBN 9780801886393.
    


72. ^ Huff, Howard R.; Tsuya, H.; Gösele, U. (1998). Silicon Materials Science and Technology: Proceedings of the Eighth International Symposium on Silicon Materials Science and Technology. Electrochemical Society. pp. 181–182.
    


73. ^ Kuo, Yue (1 January 2013). "Thin Film Transistor Technology—Past, Present, and Future" (PDF). The Electrochemical Society Interface. 22 (1): 55–61. doi:10.1149/2.F06131if. ISSN 1064-8208.
    


74. ^ "1960: Metal Oxide Semiconductor (MOS) Transistor Demonstrated". Computer History Museum.
    


75. ^ Bassett, Ross Knox (2007). To the Digital Age: Research Labs, Start-up Companies, and the Rise of MOS Technology. Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 22–25. ISBN 9780801886393.
    


76. ^ a b "Tortoise of Transistors Wins the Race - CHM Revolution". Computer History Museum. Retrieved 22 July 2019.
    


77. ^ "1964 – First Commercial MOS IC Introduced". Computer History Museum.
    


78. ^ "1968: Silicon Gate Technology Developed for ICs". Computer History Museum. Retrieved 22 July 2019.
    


79. ^ Kuo, Yue (1 January 2013). "Thin Film Transistor Technology—Past, Present, and Future" (PDF). The Electrochemical Society Interface. 22 (1): 55–61. doi:10.1149/2.F06131if. ISSN 1064-8208.
    


80. ^ a b "1971: Microprocessor Integrates CPU Function onto a Single Chip". Computer History Museum. Retrieved 22 July 2019.
    


81. ^ Colinge, Jean-Pierre; Greer, James C. (2016). Nanowire Transistors: Physics of Devices and Materials in One Dimension. Cambridge University Press. p. 2. ISBN 9781107052406.
    


82. ^ Intel's First Microprocessor—the Intel 4004, Intel Corp., November 1971, archived from the original on 13 May 2008, retrieved 17 May 2008
    


83. ^ The Intel 4004 (1971) die was 12 mm2, composed of 2300 transistors; by comparison, the Pentium Pro was 306 mm2, composed of 5.5 million transistors, according to Patterson, David; Hennessy, John (1998), Computer Organization and Design, San Francisco: Morgan Kaufmann, pp. 27–39, ISBN 978-1-55860-428-5
    


84. ^ Federico Faggin, The Making of the First Microprocessor, IEEE Solid-State Circuits Magazine, Winter 2009, IEEE Xplore
    


85. ^ a b https://www.networkworld.com/article/3154386/7-dazzling-smartphone-improvements-with-qualcomms-snapdragon-835-chip.html
    


86. ^ Chartier, David (23 December 2008). "Global notebook shipments finally overtake desktops". Ars Technica.
    


87. ^ IDC (25 July 2013). "Growth Accelerates in the Worldwide Mobile Phone and Smartphone Markets in the Second Quarter, According to IDC". Archived from the original on 26 June 2014.
    


88. ^ Most major 64-bit instruction set architectures are extensions of earlier designs. All of the architectures listed in this table, except for Alpha, existed in 32-bit forms before their 64-bit incarnations were introduced.
    


89. ^ The control unit's role in interpreting instructions has varied somewhat in the past. Although the control unit is solely responsible for instruction interpretation in most modern computers, this is not always the case. Some computers have instructions that are partially interpreted by the control unit with further interpretation performed by another device. For example, EDVAC, one of the earliest stored-program computers, used a central control unit that only interpreted four instructions. All of the arithmetic-related instructions were passed on to its arithmetic unit and further decoded there.
    


90. ^ Instructions often occupy more than one memory address, therefore the program counter usually increases by the number of memory locations required to store one instruction.
    


91. ^ David J. Eck (2000). The Most Complex Machine: A Survey of Computers and Computing. A K Peters, Ltd. p. 54. ISBN 978-1-56881-128-4.
    


92. ^ Erricos John Kontoghiorghes (2006). Handbook of Parallel Computing and Statistics. CRC Press. p. 45. ISBN 978-0-8247-4067-2.
    


93. ^ Flash memory also may only be rewritten a limited number of times before wearing out, making it less useful for heavy random access usage. (Verma & Mielke 1988)
    


94. ^ Donald Eadie (1968). Introduction to the Basic Computer. Prentice-Hall. p. 12.
    


95. ^ Arpad Barna; Dan I. Porat (1976). Introduction to Microcomputers and the Microprocessors. Wiley. p. 85. ISBN 978-0-471-05051-3.
    


96. ^ Jerry Peek; Grace Todino; John Strang (2002). Learning the UNIX Operating System: A Concise Guide for the New User. O'Reilly. p. 130. ISBN 978-0-596-00261-9.
    


97. ^ Gillian M. Davis (2002). Noise Reduction in Speech Applications. CRC Press. p. 111. ISBN 978-0-8493-0949-6.
    


98. ^ However, it is also very common to construct supercomputers out of many pieces of cheap commodity hardware; usually individual computers connected by networks. These so-called computer clusters can often provide supercomputer performance at a much lower cost than customized designs. While custom architectures are still used for most of the most powerful supercomputers, there has been a proliferation of cluster computers in recent years. (TOP500 2006)
    


99. ^ Even some later computers were commonly programmed directly in machine code. Some minicomputers like the DEC PDP-8 could be programmed directly from a panel of switches. However, this method was usually used only as part of the booting process. Most modern computers boot entirely automatically by reading a boot program from some non-volatile memory.
    


100. ^ However, there is sometimes some form of machine language compatibility between different computers. An x86-64 compatible microprocessor like the AMD Athlon 64 is able to run most of the same programs that an Intel Core 2 microprocessor can, as well as programs designed for earlier microprocessors like the Intel Pentiums and Intel 80486. This contrasts with very early commercial computers, which were often one-of-a-kind and totally incompatible with other computers.
     


101. ^ High level languages are also often interpreted rather than compiled. Interpreted languages are translated into machine code on the fly, while running, by another program called an interpreter.
     


102. ^ It is not universally true that bugs are solely due to programmer oversight. Computer hardware may fail or may itself have a fundamental problem that produces unexpected results in certain situations. For instance, the Pentium FDIV bug caused some Intel microprocessors in the early 1990s to produce inaccurate results for certain floating point division operations. This was caused by a flaw in the microprocessor design and resulted in a partial recall of the affected devices.
     


103. ^ Taylor, Alexander L., III (16 April 1984). "The Wizard Inside the Machine". TIME. Retrieved 17 February 2007. (subscription required)
     


104. ^ Agatha C. Hughes (2000). Systems, Experts, and Computers. MIT Press. p. 161. ISBN 978-0-262-08285-3. The experience of SAGE helped make possible the first truly large-scale commercial real-time network: the SABRE computerized airline reservations system ...
     


105. ^ Leiner, Barry M.; Cerf, Vinton G.; Clark, David D.; Kahn, Robert E.; Kleinrock, Leonard; Lynch, Daniel C.; Postel, Jon; Roberts, Larry G.; Wolf, Stephen (1999). "A Brief History of the Internet". Internet Society. arXiv:cs/9901011. Bibcode:1999cs........1011L. Retrieved 20 September 2008.
     


106. ^ According to the Shorter Oxford English Dictionary (6th ed, 2007), the word computer dates back to the mid 17th century, when it referred to "A person who makes calculations; specifically a person employed for this in an observatory etc."
     


107. ^ "Definition of computer". Thefreedictionary.com. Retrieved 29 January 2012.
     


108. ^ II, Joseph D. Dumas (2005). Computer Architecture: Fundamentals and Principles of Computer Design. CRC Press. p. 340. ISBN 9780849327490.