Biology
Kidus wegayehuFunctional =storage
Alpha= H_OH
More Brunched 1,6 =glycogen (amylopectine)
Amylopectine is the reason for strach to be hydrolysed easily
Cellulose=beta glucose & many locked up carbons
Chitin = exo skelaton ,fungus,
Peptidoglycan=murein bacteria
Polar head
Enzymatic action exothermic
RNA catalyst
Substrate key enzyme lock
End product inhibition regulated removing the final product(negative feedback)
Reversible
1 competitive =by increasing substrate
2 non competitive
Surface area/thickness ∝diffusion
diffusion reversible while active trūansport is unidirectional
Cisternea=ER
Golgi=package
Lysosomic enzymes are prepared by RER
Cristae=mitochondria & increases surface area
Transcription =mRNA making
Translation =formation of protein
Centriol=animals
• Figure
1,cell debris
2,nucleus
3,mitochondria
4,ribosomes
Glycolysis
Net=2ATP ,2NADH
LINK REACTION
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Protoctista= algea + protozoa
Bacteria found mostly in large intestine
Pasteur = wine
Lister=phenol as disinfectant
Koch=identified m.o that causes tuberculosis and cholera
Bacteria =release toxin
Virus disrupt metabolic system
Fungi=grow on tissue
Reservoir of infection(carrier of infection )= any person, animal, plant or soil in which infectious agents normaly lives and multiplies
Sickle cell disease is genetic disease
Hypertension =multifactorial
Nitrogen cycle
Fixation
N2---->Nitrogen cpd
(clostoridum,azotobacter,rhizobium
Nitrification
NH4-nitrifying bacteria ->NO3-nitrosomas--->NO2-nitrobacter>NO3
Denitrification
NO3--pseudomonas-->N2
Denitrification bacterias are anaerobic and enhanced in acidic and water logged soil and it simply means aerating
Desulfuvibro =bacteria in sulphur cycle
Sulphate are source of sulphur for plants
Percolating filter method =m.os act on detritus
Activated sludge methode=oxygen is blown and it is rich in m.o
Restrictions endonucleus=cutting
DNA ligase= tie genes
Vector =carrying eg,plasmid
Transgenic = genetically modified m.o
Agrobacteriumtomefaciens=used for plants but if the plant cant be modified by Agrobacteriumtomefaciens then we use gene gun
Papo,adeno,herpes ,pox,picrona,myxo, rhagdo,retro
Plant virus =RNA
Bacterial =DNA
Attachment >penetration >assembly >release
Chronic =release without bursting or by exocytosis
Lysogenic= incorporation
Head of HIV GP120
Protase=assembly
Assembly in lytic=maturation
Carbon intake=photosynthesis ,feeding and assimilation
Eutrification=impact of excessive use of fertilizer (phosphorus )
Seres=the stages in succession
Xerophytes =from bare land
Biome>>>terrestrial and aquatic
T° and precipitation are most climatic factors determining the type of biome
Boreal(taiga)=conifers
Tropical rain forest= epiphytes,lianans
Scrub(thorn forest)=shrubs,woodland
Desert=succulent, geophytes
Marine composes about 97% pf aquatic biom
Coral reef=diversified
Estuarine =intermediate b/n marine and fresh water
Biodiversity(variability of living things) is seen at the level of genes,species,ecosystems...
Direct impact of human activities that harm biodiversity are
☆deforestation
☆poaching
☆clearing the forest by burning
Simsons index= N(N-1)/∑n(n-1)
The greater the index the greater the diversity
Population is not static
Immigration =into
Intraspecific= competition among the same species
Lag>>log>>stationary >>decline
Carrying capacity the maximum number of individuals supported at a certain area
Chromosomes 》DNA 》genes
Allele is alternative version of genes that determine a trait
Pisum saivum
#produces large number of seeds
#have short life cycle
#self pollinating
#easily cross polinated
#have a number of contrasting traits
Mendel cut stamens
Mendel forms
1,concept of inheritance
2,concept of dominance
3,concept of segregation
4,concept of independent assortment
Test cross is crossing one individual with the recessive one
Loci is position of particular gene on a chromosome
Complete dominance= one is dominating
Incomplete dominance = none of them dominating but only their intermediate
Co dominance= both showing their features
Meiosos
Synapsis occurs
Prophase=spindle fiber appears nuclear membrane disappears (Synapsis occurs in prophase 1)
Metaphase=bivalent chromosomes line up in the equator
Anaphase =move to poles
Telophase=cytokinesis
Spindle fiber disappear
Autosomal chromosrms dont determine sex
Female XX
Male XY (X is longer than Y)
Klineftrate syndrom(XXy) male with femalized character
Sex limited = controlled by sex hormones
Sex influenced = hormonal influence like baldness (autosomal)
DNA replication can be
Conservative =the old is conserved
Semi conservative =widely accepted and one new one old and developed by watson crick
Disruptive = one old one new in each strand
DNA replication
Unwinding by DNA helicase
Complementary base pairing DNA polymerase
Joining by DNA ligase
Proof reading
Clonning is making multiple copies of an individual
Vivo =introducing living gene insulin
DNA is negatively charged and move to anode
Vitro =by using PCR like dolly sheep
Fringer prints are similar for homozygote twins
Much of the DNA is non coding containing many repeating units called minisatellites
PCR to amplify the amount of DNA
Steps
፠ DNA extraction
፠ making more DNA fragments by using restrictions enzyme and unwinding them by using alkali
፠ gelelectrophorosis
፠transferring DNA strand fragments from gel to nylon membrane
፠radioactive probe(short size single stranded DNA) applied for hybridization
DNA--transcription-->mRNA
mRNA--translation-->aminoacid sequence (tRNA,rRNA)
Genetic code is triplate code and non over lapping ,has polarity,degenerate,universal
TAA,TGA,TAG are stop codons
Ribosome has 3 sites named A,P,E
Codons from RNA>>tRNA(with anticodon)>>peptidebond forms>>dipeptide into A site>> free tRNA &exists dipeptide bond into P site>>E site
Site of transcription and translation are the same for prokaryotes and mRNA won't be spliced by 'splicosome'
Intron are non coding
Essential amino acids are those we get from diet
Not all genes are active
Mutation =genetic error and caused by carcinogenic substances, high radiation somatic body mutation is harmless
There are two cells tumor suppressor and proto oncogenes this cell play important role in regulating cell division
Point mutation=substitution(causes sickle cell anaemia),addition,deletion(the 2 have more impact than substitution because of DNA is degenerate and called frameshift)
Conjugation by special tube
Transduction by virus
Transformation by absorbing the dead bacteria
Chromosomal mutation rearrangement of structure
Inversion of ch-16 causes leukemia
Deletion prader willi syndrom
Duplication affects infants
Translocation malagenous leukaemia amd cancer of WBC
Euploidy
2n+1=trisomy 6sex linked diseases
2n-1=monosomy down syndrom
both causes non disjunction
Evolution
Evolution is defined as decent with modification
Evolution is caused by meiosis,hybridization, natural selection, and mutilation
Abiogenesis=spontaneous generation
Stanely miller=spark discharge tube experiment
H2,H2O,CH4,NH3 primitive atmosphere (reducing atmosphere) and develope both left and right side aminoacids but there are only left hand amino acids present in living cells and purines base couldnt I be produced and polymers cant be made
Prokaryotes and hetrotrophs were the first living organisms
Lamark = use and dis use,inheritance
Darwin= natural selection
Ethology=behaviour
Gene pool sum of all genes in population
Directional=one extreme
Stabilizing = average value
Disruptive = two extremes
Speciation is a process by which new species are formed
Allopatric=due to geographical barriers
Sympatric =due to seasonal,temporal and behavioural factors
Polyploidy for plants
Divergant(adaptive radiation)=homologous
Convergant=analogous
Sahelanthropus>>australopithecus>>homo habilus>>homo erectes>>Neanderthals>>homo sapiens
Hominids includes all the Neanderthals,australopithecus,ardipiticus
Hominins includes the genus homo
Lucy was bipedal,arobreal,old but not older than ardipiticus and died at the age of 18-21
Humans are classified into 3 races
◇negroid
◇eurosian
◇monogoloid= is the most numerous
Behaviour is an coordinated response of an organism to internal and external stimuli
Stimulus--->receptor-->coordinator--- >effector--->response
There are 3 plant responses
1,photoperiodism
• Long day(like potato,oats,lattuce)
• Short day(sweet potato,rice ,cotton)
• Day neutral(tomato,cucumber)
2 ,tropism
3,Nastic movement (non directional lake opening and closing flower)
For simple animals taxis(directional) and kinesis(rate of movement) can be tye of responses
Innate behaviour is preset
There are three types of innate behaviour
Reflex action (somatic & autonomic)
Orientational(like taxis and kinesis)
Instinctive (fixed action pattern and happens instantly when they are performed for the first time like nest building)
Circadian=behaviour on daily basis
Circannual=on annual basis
• Melatonin promotes sleepfullness
Imprinting is kind of instinct in which FAP is for newly born /hatched organisms to follow or attach to the first thing they or exposed to and this behaviour is discovered by konard lorenz
Learned behaviour is the result of natural selection and it can be
• Habituation
• Sensitization (increase in response to harmless stimulus when it occurs after harmful stimulus)
• Associative learning
》》1, classical conditioning (Ivan pavlov expt)
》》2, oparent(trail and error and discovered by B.F. Skinner and one behaviour becomes extinct and there is rewarding)
》》3, latent(behaviour without reward)
Insight learning occurs when an animal is exposed to new situation and without any prior relevant experience (solving challanging problem)
• Has Eureka movement
• Wolfgang kohler demonstrated insight learning in his chimpanzee sultan
Courtship =mating,it is innate and consists of FAP
Territorial behaviour =territories are typically used for feeding,mating,rearing young and attracts mate,stabilize population density, reduce confilict,efficient use of resources
Homerange is larger than territory
Fighting for territory includes ritualistic and actual fighting
Social behaviour =reduce Intraspecific conflict
Improves effectiveness in predation
• Play= have physiological(muscular development),social(bonding),cognitive (learning specific skill and improve perpetual ability) importance
• Ultimate goal of social behaviour is inclusive fitness,and altruistic behaviour (sacrifice)
Honey bees
• Shows eusociality and has three features
• Caring for offspring
• Presence of several generations in a colony(parent assistant)
• Division of labour
Queen bee= reproductivly active,produce primary phermons
Drone bee= male,haploid(produced by parentogenesis,only mate with queen
Worker bee sterile females
1st week=cleaning and feeding larvae
2nd week=building honey comb
3rd week=guards the hive
4rth week=foraging
Round dance =near by
• Waggle dance =away, and the source is indicated by number of waggle, length of waggle run,and sound produced by waggle and the angle from the sun indicates the direction of source and equal to the angle b/n food source and the sun