Biology

Functional =storage

Alpha= H_OH

More Brunched 1,6 =glycogen (amylopectine)

Amylopectine is the reason for strach to be hydrolysed easily

Cellulose=beta glucose & many locked up carbons

Chitin = exo skelaton ,fungus,

Peptidoglycan=murein bacteria

Polar head

Enzymatic action exothermic

RNA catalyst

Substrate key enzyme lock

End product inhibition regulated removing the final product(negative feedback)

Reversible

1 competitive =by increasing substrate

2 non competitive

Surface area/thickness ∝diffusion

diffusion reversible while active trūansport is unidirectional

Cisternea=ER

Golgi=package

Lysosomic enzymes are prepared by RER

Cristae=mitochondria & increases surface area

Transcription =mRNA making

Translation =formation of protein

Centriol=animals

• Figure

1,cell debris

2,nucleus

3,mitochondria

4,ribosomes

Glycolysis

Net=2ATP ,2NADH

LINK REACTION

.

.》》》》》》》》》》》》》》

.

Protoctista= algea + protozoa

Bacteria found mostly in large intestine

Pasteur = wine

Lister=phenol as disinfectant

Koch=identified m.o that causes tuberculosis and cholera

Bacteria =release toxin

Virus disrupt metabolic system

Fungi=grow on tissue

Reservoir of infection(carrier of infection )= any person, animal, plant or soil in which infectious agents normaly lives and multiplies

Sickle cell disease is genetic disease

Hypertension =multifactorial

Nitrogen cycle

Fixation

N2---->Nitrogen cpd

(clostoridum,azotobacter,rhizobium

Nitrification

NH4-nitrifying bacteria ->NO3-nitrosomas--->NO2-nitrobacter>NO3

Denitrification

NO3--pseudomonas-->N2

Denitrification bacterias are anaerobic and enhanced in acidic and water logged soil and it simply means aerating

Desulfuvibro =bacteria in sulphur cycle

Sulphate are source of sulphur for plants

Percolating filter method =m.os act on detritus

Activated sludge methode=oxygen is blown and it is rich in m.o

Restrictions endonucleus=cutting

DNA ligase= tie genes

Vector =carrying eg,plasmid

Transgenic = genetically modified m.o

Agrobacteriumtomefaciens=used for plants but if the plant cant be modified by Agrobacteriumtomefaciens then we use gene gun

Papo,adeno,herpes ,pox,picrona,myxo, rhagdo,retro

Plant virus =RNA

Bacterial =DNA

Attachment >penetration >assembly >release

Chronic =release without bursting or by exocytosis

Lysogenic= incorporation

Head of HIV GP120

Protase=assembly

Assembly in lytic=maturation

Carbon intake=photosynthesis ,feeding and assimilation

Eutrification=impact of excessive use of fertilizer (phosphorus )

Seres=the stages in succession

Xerophytes =from bare land

Biome>>>terrestrial and aquatic

T° and precipitation are most climatic factors determining the type of biome

Boreal(taiga)=conifers

Tropical rain forest= epiphytes,lianans

Scrub(thorn forest)=shrubs,woodland

Desert=succulent, geophytes

Marine composes about 97% pf aquatic biom

Coral reef=diversified

Estuarine =intermediate b/n marine and fresh water

Biodiversity(variability of living things) is seen at the level of genes,species,ecosystems...

Direct impact of human activities that harm biodiversity are

☆deforestation

☆poaching

☆clearing the forest by burning

Simsons index= N(N-1)/∑n(n-1)

The greater the index the greater the diversity

Population is not static

Immigration =into

Intraspecific= competition among the same species

Lag>>log>>stationary >>decline

Carrying capacity the maximum number of individuals supported at a certain area

Chromosomes 》DNA 》genes

Allele is alternative version of genes that determine a trait

Pisum saivum

#produces large number of seeds

#have short life cycle

#self pollinating

#easily cross polinated

#have a number of contrasting traits

Mendel cut stamens

Mendel forms

1,concept of inheritance

2,concept of dominance

3,concept of segregation

4,concept of independent assortment

Test cross is crossing one individual with the recessive one

Loci is position of particular gene on a chromosome

Complete dominance= one is dominating

Incomplete dominance = none of them dominating but only their intermediate

Co dominance= both showing their features

Meiosos

Synapsis occurs

Prophase=spindle fiber appears nuclear membrane disappears (Synapsis occurs in prophase 1)

Metaphase=bivalent chromosomes line up in the equator

Anaphase =move to poles

Telophase=cytokinesis

Spindle fiber disappear

Autosomal chromosrms dont determine sex

Female XX

Male XY (X is longer than Y)

Klineftrate syndrom(XXy) male with femalized character

Sex limited = controlled by sex hormones

Sex influenced = hormonal influence like baldness (autosomal)

DNA replication can be

Conservative =the old is conserved

Semi conservative =widely accepted and one new one old and developed by watson crick

Disruptive = one old one new in each strand

DNA replication

Unwinding by DNA helicase

Complementary base pairing DNA polymerase

Joining by DNA ligase

Proof reading

Clonning is making multiple copies of an individual

Vivo =introducing living gene insulin

DNA is negatively charged and move to anode

Vitro =by using PCR like dolly sheep

Fringer prints are similar for homozygote twins

Much of the DNA is non coding containing many repeating units called minisatellites

PCR to amplify the amount of DNA

Steps

፠ DNA extraction

፠ making more DNA fragments by using restrictions enzyme and unwinding them by using alkali

፠ gelelectrophorosis

፠transferring DNA strand fragments from gel to nylon membrane

፠radioactive probe(short size single stranded DNA) applied for hybridization

DNA--transcription-->mRNA

mRNA--translation-->aminoacid sequence (tRNA,rRNA)

Genetic code is triplate code and non over lapping ,has polarity,degenerate,universal

TAA,TGA,TAG are stop codons

Ribosome has 3 sites named A,P,E

Codons from RNA>>tRNA(with anticodon)>>peptidebond forms>>dipeptide into A site>> free tRNA &exists dipeptide bond into P site>>E site

Site of transcription and translation are the same for prokaryotes and mRNA won't be spliced by 'splicosome'

Intron are non coding

Essential amino acids are those we get from diet

Not all genes are active

Mutation =genetic error and caused by carcinogenic substances, high radiation somatic body mutation is harmless

There are two cells tumor suppressor and proto oncogenes this cell play important role in regulating cell division

Point mutation=substitution(causes sickle cell anaemia),addition,deletion(the 2 have more impact than substitution because of DNA is degenerate and called frameshift)

Conjugation by special tube

Transduction by virus

Transformation by absorbing the dead bacteria

Chromosomal mutation rearrangement of structure

Inversion of ch-16 causes leukemia

Deletion prader willi syndrom

Duplication affects infants

Translocation malagenous leukaemia amd cancer of WBC

Euploidy

2n+1=trisomy 6sex linked diseases

2n-1=monosomy down syndrom

both causes non disjunction

Evolution

Evolution is defined as decent with modification

Evolution is caused by meiosis,hybridization, natural selection, and mutilation

Abiogenesis=spontaneous generation

Stanely miller=spark discharge tube experiment

H2,H2O,CH4,NH3 primitive atmosphere (reducing atmosphere) and develope both left and right side aminoacids but there are only left hand amino acids present in living cells and purines base couldnt I be produced and polymers cant be made

Prokaryotes and hetrotrophs were the first living organisms

Lamark = use and dis use,inheritance

Darwin= natural selection

Ethology=behaviour

Gene pool sum of all genes in population

Directional=one extreme

Stabilizing = average value

Disruptive = two extremes

Speciation is a process by which new species are formed

Allopatric=due to geographical barriers

Sympatric =due to seasonal,temporal and behavioural factors

Polyploidy for plants

Divergant(adaptive radiation)=homologous

Convergant=analogous

Sahelanthropus>>australopithecus>>homo habilus>>homo erectes>>Neanderthals>>homo sapiens

Hominids includes all the Neanderthals,australopithecus,ardipiticus

Hominins includes the genus homo

Lucy was bipedal,arobreal,old but not older than ardipiticus and died at the age of 18-21

Humans are classified into 3 races

◇negroid

◇eurosian

◇monogoloid= is the most numerous

Behaviour is an coordinated response of an organism to internal and external stimuli

Stimulus--->receptor-->coordinator--- >effector--->response

There are 3 plant responses

1,photoperiodism

• Long day(like potato,oats,lattuce)

• Short day(sweet potato,rice ,cotton)

• Day neutral(tomato,cucumber)

2 ,tropism

3,Nastic movement (non directional lake opening and closing flower)

For simple animals taxis(directional) and kinesis(rate of movement) can be tye of responses

Innate behaviour is preset

There are three types of innate behaviour

Reflex action (somatic & autonomic)

Orientational(like taxis and kinesis)

Instinctive (fixed action pattern and happens instantly when they are performed for the first time like nest building)

Circadian=behaviour on daily basis

Circannual=on annual basis

• Melatonin promotes sleepfullness

Imprinting is kind of instinct in which FAP is for newly born /hatched organisms to follow or attach to the first thing they or exposed to and this behaviour is discovered by konard lorenz

Learned behaviour is the result of natural selection and it can be

• Habituation

• Sensitization (increase in response to harmless stimulus when it occurs after harmful stimulus)

• Associative learning

》》1, classical conditioning (Ivan pavlov expt)

》》2, oparent(trail and error and discovered by B.F. Skinner and one behaviour becomes extinct and there is rewarding)

》》3, latent(behaviour without reward)

Insight learning occurs when an animal is exposed to new situation and without any prior relevant experience (solving challanging problem)

• Has Eureka movement

• Wolfgang kohler demonstrated insight learning in his chimpanzee sultan

Courtship =mating,it is innate and consists of FAP

Territorial behaviour =territories are typically used for feeding,mating,rearing young and attracts mate,stabilize population density, reduce confilict,efficient use of resources

Homerange is larger than territory

Fighting for territory includes ritualistic and actual fighting

Social behaviour =reduce Intraspecific conflict

Improves effectiveness in predation

• Play= have physiological(muscular development),social(bonding),cognitive (learning specific skill and improve perpetual ability) importance

• Ultimate goal of social behaviour is inclusive fitness,and altruistic behaviour (sacrifice)

Honey bees

• Shows eusociality and has three features

• Caring for offspring

• Presence of several generations in a colony(parent assistant)

• Division of labour

Queen bee= reproductivly active,produce primary phermons

Drone bee= male,haploid(produced by parentogenesis,only mate with queen

Worker bee sterile females

1st week=cleaning and feeding larvae

2nd week=building honey comb

3rd week=guards the hive

4rth week=foraging

Round dance =near by

• Waggle dance =away, and the source is indicated by number of waggle, length of waggle run,and sound produced by waggle and the angle from the sun indicates the direction of source and equal to the angle b/n food source and the sun