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The most potent are members of the genus Psilocybe , such as P. As a prodrug , psilocybin is quickly converted by the body to psilocin , which has mind-altering effects similar, in some aspects, to those of LSD , mescaline , and DMT. In general, the effects include euphoria , visual and mental hallucinations , changes in perception , a distorted sense of time , spiritual experiences, and can include possible adverse reactions such as nausea and panic attacks. Imagery found on prehistoric murals and rock paintings of modern-day Spain and Algeria suggests that human usage of psilocybin mushrooms predates recorded history. In Mesoamerica , the mushrooms had long been consumed in spiritual and divinatory ceremonies before Spanish chroniclers first documented their use in the 16th century. In , the Swiss chemist Albert Hofmann isolated the active principle psilocybin from the mushroom Psilocybe mexicana. Although the increasingly restrictive drug laws of the late s curbed scientific research into the effects of psilocybin and other hallucinogens, its popularity as an entheogen spirituality-enhancing agent grew in the next decade, owing largely to the increased availability of information on how to cultivate psilocybin mushrooms. The intensity and duration of the effects of psilocybin are variable, depending on species or cultivar of mushrooms, dosage, individual physiology, and set and setting , as was shown in experiments led by Timothy Leary at Harvard University in the early s. Once ingested, psilocybin is rapidly metabolized to psilocin, which then acts on serotonin receptors in the brain. The mind-altering effects of psilocybin typically last from two to six hours, although to individuals under the influence of psilocybin, the effects may seem to last much longer, since the drug can distort the perception of time. Psilocybin has a low toxicity and a low harm potential. Possession of psilocybin-containing mushrooms has been outlawed in most countries, and it has been classified as a scheduled drug by many national drug laws. The effects of psilocybin are highly variable and depend on the mindset and environment in which the user has the experience, factors commonly referred to as set and setting. In the early s, Timothy Leary and colleagues at Harvard University investigated the role of set and setting on the effects of psilocybin. They administered the drug to volunteers from various backgrounds in an environment intended to be similar to a comfortable living room. Ninety-eight of the subjects were given questionnaires to assess their experiences and the contribution of background and situational factors. Individuals who had experience with psilocybin prior to the study reported more pleasant experiences than those for whom the drug was novel. Group size, dosage, preparation, and expectancy were important determinants of the drug response. In general, those placed in groups of more than eight individuals felt that the groups were less supportive, and their experiences were less pleasant. Conversely, smaller groups fewer than six individuals were seen as more supportive. Participants also reported having more positive reactions to the drug in those groups. Leary and colleagues proposed that psilocybin heightens suggestibility , making an individual more receptive to interpersonal interactions and environmental stimuli. After ingesting psilocybin, a wide range of subjective effects may be experienced: About a third of users report feelings of anxiety or paranoia. Closed-eye hallucinations may occur, in which the affected individual sees multicolored geometric shapes and vivid imaginative sequences. A prospective study by Roland R. Griffiths and colleagues suggests that a single high dosage of psilocybin can cause long-term changes in the personality of its users. About half of the study participants—described as healthy, 'spiritually active', and many possessing postgraduate degrees —showed an increase in the personality dimension of openness assessed using the Revised NEO Personality Inventory , and this positive effect was apparent more than a year after the psilocybin session. According to the study authors, the finding is significant because 'no study has prospectively demonstrated personality change in healthy adults after an experimentally manipulated discrete event. Psilocybin is known to strongly influence the subjective experience of the passage of time. Users having a pleasant experience can feel a sense of connection to others, nature, and the universe; other perceptions and emotions are also often intensified. Users having an unpleasant experience a ' bad trip ' describe a reaction accompanied by fear, other unpleasant feelings, and occasionally by dangerous behavior. In general, the phrase 'bad trip' is used to describe a reaction that is characterized primarily by fear or other unpleasant emotions, not just transitory experience of such feelings. A variety of factors may contribute to a psilocybin user experiencing a bad trip, including 'tripping' during an emotional or physical low or in a non-supportive environment see: Ingesting psilocybin in combination with other drugs, including alcohol, can also increase the likelihood of a bad trip. However, in the Psychedelics Encyclopedia , author Peter Stafford noted, 'The psilocybin experience seems to be warmer, not as forceful and less isolating. It tends to build connections between people, who are generally much more in communication than when they use LSD. Psilocybin mushrooms have been and continue to be used in indigenous New World cultures in religious, divinatory , or spiritual contexts. Reflecting the meaning of the word entheogen 'the god within' , the mushrooms are revered as powerful spiritual sacraments that provide access to sacred worlds. Typically used in small group community settings, they enhance group cohesion and reaffirm traditional values. Psychedelic drugs can induce states of consciousness that have lasting personal meaning and spiritual significance in individuals who are religious or spiritually inclined; these states are called mystical experiences. Some scholars have proposed that many of the qualities of a drug-induced mystical experience are indistinguishable from mystical experiences achieved through non-drug techniques , such as meditation or holotropic breathwork. These categories, according to Pahnke, 'describe the core of a universal psychological experience, free from culturally determined philosophical or theological interpretations', and allow researchers to assess mystical experiences on a qualitative, numerical scale. Nevertheless, he said that the study cast 'a considerable doubt on the assertion that mystical experiences catalyzed by drugs are in any way inferior to non-drug mystical experiences in both their immediate content and long-term effects'. A group of researchers from Johns Hopkins School of Medicine led by Griffiths conducted a study to assess the immediate and long-term psychological effects of the psilocybin experience, using a modified version of the mystical experience questionnaire and a rigorous double-blind procedure. Leary abandoned in the early s. The degree of mystical experience was measured using a questionnaire developed by Ralph W. A follow-up study conducted 14 months after the original psilocybin session confirmed that participants continued to attribute deep personal meaning to the experience. Almost one-third of the subjects reported that the experience was the single most meaningful or spiritually significant event of their lives, and over two-thirds reported it among their five most spiritually significant events. About two-thirds indicated that the experience increased their sense of well-being or life satisfaction. In , Griffiths and colleagues published the results of further studies designed to learn more about the optimum psilocybin doses needed for positive life-changing experiences, while minimizing the chance of negative reactions. None of the 90 sessions that took place throughout the study were rated as decreasing well-being or life satisfaction. The conditions of the experimental design included a single drug experience a month, on a couch, in a living-room-like setting, with eye shades and carefully chosen music classical and world music. As an additional precaution to guide the experience, as with the study, the study included a 'monitor' or 'guide' whom the volunteers supposedly trusted. The monitors provided gentle reassurance when the volunteers experienced anxiety. The volunteers and monitors all remained blind to the exact dosages for the purpose of the experiment. Although psilocybin may be prepared synthetically, outside of the research setting, it is not typically used in this form. The psilocybin present in certain species of mushrooms can be ingested in several ways: Most of the comparatively few fatal incidents reported in the literature that are associated with psychedelic mushroom usage involve the simultaneous use of other drugs, especially alcohol. Probably the most common cause of hospital admissions resulting from psychedelic mushroom usage involve 'bad trips' or panic reactions , in which affected individuals become extremely anxious, confused, agitated, or disoriented. Accidents, self-injury , or suicide attempts can result from serious cases of acute psychotic episodes. The toxicity of psilocybin is low. Panic reactions can occur after consumption of psilocybin-containing mushrooms, especially if the ingestion is accidental or otherwise unexpected. A survey conducted in the United Kingdom found that almost a quarter of those who had used psilocybin mushrooms in the past year had experienced a panic attack. Recent evidence, however, has suggested against the contention that the use of psilocybin puts one at risk for developing long lasting mental disorders. An analysis of information from the National Survey on Drug Use and Health showed that the use of psychedelic drugs such as psilocybin is associated with significantly reduced odds of past month psychological distress, past year suicidal thinking, past year suicidal planning, and past year suicide attempt. The similarity of psilocybin-induced symptoms to those of schizophrenia has made the drug a useful research tool in behavioral and neuroimaging studies of this psychotic disorder. Hallucinogen persisting perception disorder HPPD is characterized by a continual presence of visual disturbances similar to those generated by psychedelic substances. Tolerance to psilocybin builds and dissipates quickly; ingesting psilocybin more than about once a week can lead to diminished effects. Tolerance dissipates after a few days, so doses can be spaced several days apart to avoid the effect. Repeated use of psilocybin does not lead to physical dependence. Psilocybin is rapidly dephosphorylated in the body to psilocin , which is a partial agonist for several serotonin receptors , which are also known as 5-hydroxytryptamine 5-HT receptors. Serotonin receptors are located in numerous parts of the brain, including the cerebral cortex , and are involved in a wide range of functions, including regulation of mood and motivation. In contrast, there are some who require relatively high doses to experience noticeable effects. Psilocybin is metabolized mostly in the liver. As it becomes converted to psilocin, it undergoes a first-pass effect , whereby its concentration is greatly reduced before it reaches the systemic circulation. Psilocin is broken down by the enzyme monoamine oxidase to produce several metabolites that can circulate in the blood plasma, including 4-hydroxyindoleacetaldehyde, 4-hydroxytryptophol, and 4-hydroxyindoleacetic acid. Monoamine oxidase inhibitors MAOI have been known to prolong and enhance the effects of psilocybin. This chemical reaction takes place under strongly acidic conditions, or under physiological conditions in the body, through the action of enzymes called alkaline phosphatases. Psilocybin is a tryptamine compound with a chemical structure containing an indole ring linked to an ethylamine substituent. It is chemically related to the amino acid tryptophan , and is structurally similar to the neurotransmitter serotonin. Psilocybin is a member of the general class of tryptophan-based compounds that originally functioned as antioxidants in earlier life forms before assuming more complex functions in multicellular organisms, including humans. Psilocybin is an alkaloid that is soluble in water, methanol and aqueous ethanol , but insoluble in organic solvents like chloroform and petroleum ether. Several relatively simple chemical tests — commercially available as reagent testing kits — can be used to assess the presence of psilocybin in extracts prepared from mushrooms. The drug reacts in the Marquis test to produce a yellow color, and a green color in the Mandelin test. Although the earliest methods commonly used gas chromatography , the high temperature required to vaporize the psilocybin sample prior to analysis causes it to spontaneously lose its phosphoryl group and become psilocin — making it difficult to chemically discriminate between the two drugs. In forensic toxicology , techniques involving gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry GC—MS are the most widely used due to their high sensitivity and ability to separate compounds in complex biological mixtures. Various chromatographic methods have been developed to detect psilocin in body fluids: A specific immunoassay has also been developed to detect psilocin in whole blood samples. Psilocybin is present in varying concentrations in over species of Basidiomycota mushrooms. The majority of these are found in Mexico 53 species , with the remainder distributed in the US and Canada 22 , Europe 16 , Asia 15 , Africa 4 , and Australia and associated islands Both the caps and the stems contain the psychoactive compounds, although the caps consistently contain more. The spores of these mushrooms do not contain psilocybin or psilocin. The psilocybin contents of dried herbarium specimens of Psilocybe semilanceata in one study were shown to decrease with the increasing age of the sample: There is evidence to suggest that psychoactive mushrooms have been used by humans in religious ceremonies for thousands of years. Archaeological artifacts from Mexico , as well as the so-called Mayan 'mushroom stones' of Guatemala have also been interpreted by some scholars as evidence for ritual and ceremonial usage of psychoactive mushrooms in the Mayan and Aztec cultures of Mesoamerica. Following the arrival of Spanish explorers to the New World in the 16th century, chroniclers reported the use of mushrooms by the natives for ceremonial and religious purposes. For the next four centuries, the Indians of Mesoamerica hid their use of entheogens from the Spanish authorities. Although dozens of species of psychedelic mushrooms are found in Europe , there is little documented usage of these species in Old World history besides the use of Amanita muscaria among Siberian peoples. For example, Flemish botanist Carolus Clusius — described the bolond gomba crazy mushroom , used in rural Hungary to prepare love potions. English botanist John Parkinson included details about a 'foolish mushroom' in his herbal Theatricum Botanicum. American banker and amateur ethnomycologist R. Gordon Wasson and his wife Valentina P. In , Wasson described the psychedelic visions that he experienced during these rituals in ' Seeking the Magic Mushroom ', an article published in the popular American weekly Life magazine. Hofmann, who had in created LSD , led a research group that isolated and identified the psychoactive compounds from Psilocybe mexicana. The new molecules differed from psilocybin in the position of the phosphoryl or hydroxyl group at the top of the indole ring , and in the numbers of methyl groups CH 3 and other additional carbon chains. Two diethyl analogs containing two ethyl groups in place of the two methyl groups of psilocybin and psilocin were synthesized by Hofmann: Because their physiological effects last only about three and a half hours about half as long as psilocybin , they proved more manageable in European clinics using ' psycholytic therapy '—a form of psychotherapy involving the controlled use of psychedelic drugs. In the early s, Harvard University became a testing ground for psilocybin, through the efforts of Timothy Leary and his associates Ralph Metzner and Richard Alpert who later changed his name to Ram Dass. Leary obtained synthesized psilocybin from Hofmann through Sandoz pharmaceutical. Some studies, such as the Concord Prison Experiment , suggested promising results using psilocybin in clinical psychiatry. In the United States, laws were passed in that prohibited the production, trade, or ingestion of hallucinogenic drugs; Sandoz stopped producing LSD and psilocybin the same year. Subsequent restrictions on the use of these drugs in human research made funding for such projects difficult to obtain, and scientists who worked with psychedelic drugs faced being 'professionally marginalized'. Despite the legal restrictions on psilocybin use, the s witnessed the emergence of psilocybin as the 'entheogen of choice'. One of the most popular of this latter group was published in under the pseudonyms O. Oeric by Jeremy Bigwood, Dennis J. Over , copies were sold by The new technique involved the use of ordinary kitchen implements, and for the first time the layperson was able to produce a potent entheogen in his own home, without access to sophisticated technology, equipment or chemical supplies. Because of a lack of clarity about laws about psilocybin mushrooms, retailers in the late s and early s decade commercialized and marketed them in smartshops in the Netherlands and the UK, and online. Since , six EU countries have tightened their legislation on psilocybin mushrooms in response to concerns about their prevalence and increasing usage. Advances in neuropharmacology and neuropsychology , and the availability of brain imaging techniques have provided impetus for using drugs like psilocybin to probe the 'neural underpinnings of psychotic symptom formation including ego disorders and hallucinations'. In the United States, psilocybin and psilocin were first subjected to federal regulation by the Drug Abuse Control Amendments of , a product of a bill sponsored by Senator Thomas J. The law—passed in July and effected on February 1, —was an amendment to the federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act and was intended to regulate the unlicensed 'possession, manufacture, or sale of depressant, stimulant and hallucinogenic drugs'. Despite the seemingly strict provisions of the law, many people were exempt from prosecution. The substances were said to have 'a high potential for abuse', 'no currently accepted medical use,' and 'a lack of accepted safety'. The United Nations Convention on Psychotropic Substances adopted in requires its members to prohibit psilocybin, and parties to the treaty are required to restrict use of the drug to medical and scientific research under strictly controlled conditions. However, the mushrooms containing the drug were not specifically included in the convention, due largely to pressure from the Mexican government. Possession and use of psilocybin mushrooms, including the bluing species of Psilocybe , is therefore prohibited by extension. However, in many national, state, and provincial drug laws, there has been a great deal of ambiguity about the legal status of psilocybin mushrooms, as well as a strong element of selective enforcement in some places. A loophole further complicates the legal situation—the spores of psilocybin mushrooms do not contain the drugs, and are legal to possess in many areas. As a consequence, there is an active underground economy involved in the sale of spores and cultivation materials, and an internet-based social network to support the illicit activity. A national survey of drug use by the US Department of Health and Human Services concluded that the number of first-time psilocybin mushroom users in the United States was roughly equivalent to the number of first-time users of cannabis. In modern Mexico, traditional ceremonial use survives among several indigenous groups, including the Nahuas , the Matlatzinca , the Totonacs , the Mazatecs , Mixes , Zapotecs , and the Chatino. Psilocybin has been a subject of preliminary research since the early s, when the Harvard Psilocybin Project evaluated the potential therapeutic value of psilocybin for personality disorders. The chemical structures of psilocybin and related analogs have been used in computational biology to help modeling of the structure , function, and ligand -binding properties of the 5-HT 2C G protein-coupled receptor. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. LD 50 median dose. Psilocybin was first isolated from Psilocybe mexicana. Legal status of psilocybin mushrooms. Fungi portal Pharmacy and Pharmacology portal. Psilocybin can occasion mystical-type experiences having substantial and sustained personal meaning and spiritual experience by Griffiths et al. Behavioral effects, in contrast, can be observed directly. It also listed Magic-Mushrooms. The report detailed several additional sites selling spore prints in , but noted that many of these had ceased operation. National Library of Medicine. A history of European research into drugs and creativity'. Journal of Creative Behavior. Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology. Psilocybine, a new psychotogenic drug'. New England Journal of Medicine. In Pletscher A, Ladewig D. Current Status and Perspectives of Hallucinogens. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience. Reviews in the Neurosciences. Nederlands Tijdschrift voor Geneeskunde in Dutch. New Evidence for Hallucinogenic Substances as Treatments. The Varieties of Religious Experience. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs. Journal of Religion and Health. International Journal of Parapsychology. Psilocybin Viewed as Therapy or Research Tool'. Retrieved February 12, Journal of Substance Abuse. Lay summary — Newswise. Pharmacological, Developmental, and Clinical Considerations' 2nd ed. New Castle Medical Journal. Trends in Pharmacological Sciences. The Heffter Review of Psychedelic Research. Easy Indoor and Outdoor Cultivation. Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics of Abused Drugs. Journal of Forensic Sciences. Journal of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Analysis. Journal of Analytical Toxicology. Bioactive Compounds in Foods. Handbook of the Behavioral Neurobiology of Serotonin. Hazardous Substances Data Bank. Retrieved November 21, Journal of Natural Products. Helvetica Chimica Acta in German. Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences in German. Incorporation of labelled tryptamine derivatives'. Journal of Psychedelic Drugs. Principles of Forensic Toxicology 2nd ed. American Association for Clinical Chemistry Press. Journal of Forensic Science. Archived from the original on April 29, Journal of Chromatography B. International Journal of Legal Medicine. International Journal of Medicinal Mushrooms. Annali del Museo civico di Rovereto. Journal of Chromatography A. A comparison between Siberian and Mesoamerican Cultures'. Divine Mushroom of Immortality. Revue de Mycologie in French. New Research on Street Drugs. Publications Office of the European Union. The International Journal on Drug Policy. Retrieved September 12, Therapeutic Advances in Psychopharmacology. Journal of Molecular Graphics and Modelling. Sacred Mushrooms and the Law. Journal of Transpersonal Psychology. Psychedelics Encyclopedia 3rd ed. Dextrallorphan Dextromethorphan Dextrorphan Racemethorphan Racemorphan. Apomorphine Aporphine Bromocriptine Cabergoline Lisuride Memantine Nuciferine Pergolide Phenethylamine Piribedil Pramipexole Ropinirole Rotigotine Salvinorin A Also indirect D 2 agonists, such as dopamine reuptake inhibitors cocaine , methylphenidate , releasing agents amphetamine , methamphetamine , and precursors levodopa. Glaucine Isoaminile Noscapine Pukateine. AR-A Beta blockers e. Agomelatine Atypical antipsychotics e. Adatanserin Agomelatine Atypical antipsychotics e. Alosetron Arazasetron AS Atypical antipsychotics e. ABT Atypical antipsychotics e. Retrieved from ' https: Entheogens Mycotoxins Tryptamine alkaloids Novartis Psychedelic tryptamines Serotonin receptor agonists Organophosphates Phenol esters. Views Read Edit View history. In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikinews. Lethal dose or concentration LD , LC:.

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