Canada

Canada is a federation composed of ten provinces and three territories. In turn, these may be grouped into four main regions: Western Canada, Central Canada, Atlantic Canada, and Northern Canada (Eastern Canada refers to Central Canada and Atlantic Canada together).[206] Provinces have more autonomy than territories, having responsibility for social programs such as health care, education, and welfare.[207] Together, the provinces collect more revenue than the federal government, an almost unique structure among federations in the world. Using its spending powers, the federal government can initiate national policies in provincial areas, such as the Canada Health Act; the provinces can opt out of these, but rarely do so in practice. Equalization payments are made by the federal government to ensure reasonably uniform standards of services and taxation are kept between the richer and poorer provinces.[208] The major difference between a Canadian province and a territory is that provinces receive their power and authority from the Constitution Act, 1867, whereas territorial governments have powers delegated to them by the Parliament of Canada.[209] The powers flowing from the Constitution Act are divided between the Government of Canada (the federal government) and the provincial governments to exercise exclusively.[210] A change to the division of powers between the federal government and the provinces requires a constitutional amendment, whereas a similar change affecting the territories can be performed unilaterally by the Parliament of Canada or government.[211]

Canada is the world's tenth-largest economy as of 2018[update], with a nominal GDP of approximately US$1.73 trillion.[212] It is one of the least corrupt countries in the world,[213] and is one of the world's top ten trading nations, with a highly globalized economy.[214][215] Canada has a mixed economy ranking above the U.S. and most western European nations on The Heritage Foundation's index of economic freedom,[216] and experiencing a relatively low level of income disparity.[217] The country's average household disposable income per capita is "well above" the OECD average.[218] The Toronto Stock Exchange is the ninth-largest stock exchange in the world by market capitalization, listing over 1,500 companies with a combined market capitalization of over US$2 trillion.[219]

In 2018, Canadian trade in goods and services reached CA$1.5 trillion.[220] Canada's exports totalled over CA$585 billion, while its imported goods were worth over CA$607 billion, of which approximately CA$391 billion originated from the United States, CA$216 billion from non-U.S. sources.[220] The country's 2019 trade surplus totalled CA$762 billion, compared with a CA$46.9 billion surplus in 2008.[221]

Since the early 20th century, the growth of Canada's manufacturing, mining, and service sectors has transformed the nation from a largely rural economy to an urbanized, industrial one.[222] Like many other developed countries, the Canadian economy is dominated by the service industry, which employs about three-quarters of the country's workforce.[223] However, Canada is unusual among developed countries in the importance of its primary sector, in which the forestry and petroleum industries are two of the most prominent components.[224]

Canada is one of the few developed nations that are net exporters of energy.[224][225] Atlantic Canada possesses vast offshore deposits of natural gas, and Alberta also hosts large oil and gas resources. The vastness of the Athabasca oil sands and other assets results in Canada having a 13 percent share of global oil reserves, comprising the world's third-largest share after Venezuela and Saudi Arabia.[226] Canada is additionally one of the world's largest suppliers of agricultural products; the Canadian Prairies are one of the most important global producers of wheat, canola, and other grains.[227] Canada's Department of Natural Resources provides statistics regarding its major exports; the country is a leading exporter of zinc, uranium, gold, nickel, platinoids, aluminum, steel, iron ore, coking coal, lead, copper, molybdenum, cobalt, and cadmium.[228] Many towns in northern Canada, where agriculture is difficult, are sustainable because of nearby mines or sources of timber. Canada also has a sizeable manufacturing sector centred in southern Ontario and Quebec, with automobiles and aeronautics representing particularly important industries.[229]

Canada's economic integration with the United States has increased significantly since World War II.[230] The Automotive Products Trade Agreement of 1965 opened Canada's borders to trade in the automobile manufacturing industry.[231] In the 1970s, concerns over energy self-sufficiency and foreign ownership in the manufacturing sectors prompted Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau's Liberal government to enact the National Energy Program (NEP) and the Foreign Investment Review Agency (FIRA).[232] In the 1980s, Prime Minister Brian Mulroney's Progressive Conservatives abolished the NEP and changed the name of FIRA to Investment Canada, to encourage foreign investment.[233] The Canada – United States Free Trade Agreement (FTA) of 1988 eliminated tariffs between the two countries, while the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) expanded the free-trade zone to include Mexico in 1994.[234] Canada has a strong cooperative banking sector, with the world's highest per-capita membership in credit unions.[235]

Science and technology

In 2018, Canada spent approximately C$34.5 billion on domestic research and development, of which around $7 billion was provided by the federal and provincial governments.[236] As of 2018[update], the country has produced fourteen Nobel laureates in physics, chemistry, and medicine,[237] and was ranked fourth worldwide for scientific research quality in a major 2012 survey of international scientists.[238] It is furthermore home to the headquarters of a number of global technology firms.[239] Canada has one of the highest levels of Internet access in the world, with over 33 million users, equivalent to around 94 percent of its total 2014 population.[240]

The Canadian Space Agency operates a highly active space program, conducting deep-space, planetary, and aviation research, and developing rockets and satellites.[241] Canada was the third country to design and construct a satellite after the Soviet Union and the United States, with the 1962 Alouette 1 launch.[242] Canada is a participant in the International Space Station (ISS), and is a pioneer in space robotics, having constructed the Canadarm, Canadarm2 and Dextre robotic manipulators for the ISS and NASA's Space Shuttle.[243] Since the 1960s, Canada's aerospace industry has designed and built numerous marques of satellite, including Radarsat-1 and 2, ISIS and MOST.[244] Canada has also produced one of the world's most successful and widely used sounding rockets, the Black Brant; over 1,000 Black Brants have been launched since the rocket's introduction in 1961.[245]

The 2016 Canadian Census enumerated a total population of 35,151,728, an increase of around 5.0 percent over the 2011 figure.[247][248] Between 2011 and May 2016, Canada's population grew by 1.7 million people, with immigrants accounting for two-thirds of the increase.[249] Between 1990 and 2008, the population increased by 5.6 million, equivalent to 20.4 percent overall growth.[250] The main drivers of population growth are immigration and, to a lesser extent, natural growth.[251]

Canada has one of the highest per-capita immigration rates in the world,[252] driven mainly by economic policy and, to a lesser extent, family reunification.[253][254] The Canadian public, as well as the major political parties, support the current level of immigration.[253][255] In 2014, a total of 260,400 immigrants were admitted to Canada, mainly from Asia.[256] The Canadian government anticipated between 280,000 and 305,000 new permanent residents in the following years,[257][258] a similar number of immigrants as in recent years.[259] India, Philippines and China are the top three countries of origin for immigrants moving to Canada.[260] New immigrants settle mostly in major urban areas such as Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver.[261] Canada also accepts large numbers of refugees,[262] accounting for over 10 percent of annual global refugee resettlements.[263][264]

Canada's population density, at 3.7 inhabitants per square kilometre (9.6/sq mi), is among the lowest in the world.[265] Canada spans latitudinally from the 83rd parallel north to the 41st parallel north, and approximately 95 percent of the population is found south of the 55th parallel north.[266] About four-fifths of the population lives within 150 kilometres (93 mi) of the border with the contiguous United States.[267] The most densely populated part of the country, accounting for nearly 50 percent, is the Quebec City–Windsor Corridor in Southern Quebec and Southern Ontario along the Great Lakes and the Saint Lawrence River.[246][266] An additional 30 percent live along the British Columbia Lower Mainland, and the Calgary–Edmonton Corridor in Alberta.[268]

The majority of Canadians (69.9 percent) live in family households, 26.8 percent report living alone, and those living with unrelated persons reported at 3.7 percent.[269] The average size of a household in 2006 was 2.5 people.[269]

Healthcare in Canada is delivered through the provincial and territorial systems of publicly funded health care, informally called Medicare.[270][271] It is guided by the provisions of the Canada Health Act of 1984,[272] and is universal.[273] Universal access to publicly funded health services "is often considered by Canadians as a fundamental value that ensures national health care insurance for everyone wherever they live in the country."[274] However, 30 percent of Canadians' healthcare is paid for through the private sector.[275] This mostly goes towards services not covered or partially covered by Medicare, such as prescription drugs, dentistry and optometry.[275] Approximately 65 to 75 percent of Canadians have some form of supplementary health insurance related to the aforementioned reasons; many receive it through their employers or utilizes secondary social service programs related to extended coverage for families receiving social assistance or vulnerable demographics, such as seniors, minors, and those with disabilities.[276][275]