7 Предмет фонетика 7 тема ответы
1 On the articulatory, or production, level intonation is a complex phenomenon. In
the production of speech melody the subglottal, laryngeal and supraglottal respiratory
nucleus regulate the subglottal air – pressure, which makes the vocal cords vibrate. An
increase of subglottal pressure raise the pith of the voice, and its decrease lowers the
pith.The definition of intonation given above is a broad definition. It reflects the actual
interconnection and interaction of melody, sentence stress, rhythm and timbre in
speech.The definition of intonation given above is a broad definition. It reflects the actual interconnection and interaction of melody, sentence stress, rhythm and timbre in
speech.A great number of phoneticians abroad, including Jones, Armstrong and Ward,
Pike, Kingdon, Gimson, O’Connor and Arnold define intonation as the variation of the
pitch of the voice, thus reducing it to just one component – speech melody. This is a
narrow definition of intonation.
2 Alongside of the term “intonation” the term “prosody” is widely used. “Prosody”
and “prosodic” denote non – segmental phenomena, i.e. those which do not enter into
the system of segmental phonemes. Some phoneticians distinguish the prosody of the syllable from the prosody of the
word and the prosody of the syllable from the prosody of the word and the prosody of
the utterance. Others apply the terms “prosody” and “prosodic” only to the features
pertaining to the syllable and phonetic word or rhythmic group (which are regarded as
meaningless prosodic units) and oppose prosody to intonation (which is a meaningful
phenomenon).
3 A rhythmic group (or an accent unit) is either one stressed syllabic or a stressed
syllabic with a number of unstressed ones grouped around it.
The stressed syllable is the nucleus of the rhythmic group. There are as many
rhythmic groups in an utterance as there are stressed syllables in it. The unstressed
syllables are clitics. Those precedings the stressed syllable are called proclitics, and
those following it – enclitics. The syllables of a word always belong to one rhythmic
group. Form words may be both proclitics and enclitics, depending on their semantic
and syntactic relations with the notional words preceding and following them.
Rhythmic groups are actual perceptible units, capable of being isolated out of an
utterance due to the meanings, expressed by their prosody.
4 Baunduin de Cournetay applied the term “syntagm” for a word used in a sentence
in contradistinction to a word taken as a lexical unit (“a lexeme”).
Sausure used this term to mean two or more linguistic elements joined together: two
successive morphemes or two elements of a compound word or a noun with an
attribute.
Scherba’s syntagm theory is based on the syntactic, semantic and phonetic relations
of words in an utterance. Scherba defined the syntagm in the following way: “The
phonetic entity, which expresses a semantic entity in the process of speaking (and
thinking), and which may consist either of one rhythmical group or of a number of
such groups is what I call a syntagm.”
The term “sense-group” calls attention to the fact that it is a group of words that
make sense when put together. But it doesn’t indicate its intonational character.
The term “breath-group” emphasizes the physiological aspect of the syntagm,
which is uttered with a single breath. A breath-group usually coincides with a syntagm
because pauses for breath are normally made at points where pauses are necessary or
possible from the point of view of meaning.
But a pause for breath may be made after two or more syntagm are uttered, so a
breath-group may not coincide with a syntagm.
5 Thus, the intonation group can be divided in two different ways: 1) into rhythmic
groups and stllabic which are hierarchically related (the latter being an element of the
former) or 2) into functional elements which are autonomous prosodic units.
Further experimental investigations are needed to study prosodic features of all
theses units and to determine their correlation and their functional significance.
The largest prosodic unit is the utterance, which is characterized by its definite
acoustic and auditory structure. It is the main communicative unit. One and the same
intonation pattern of an utterance may be imposed on any syntactical structure of a
senetnce. The term “sentence” may denote 1) a synactical unit only. A formal
grammatical structure, and 2) a ssintactical and phonetic unit together.
6 1. The constitutive function of intonation is to form utterance communicative units
on the basis of certain syntactical and lexical structures. Intonation unifies words into
utterances, thus giving the latter the final form without which they cannot exit. A
succession of words arranged syntactically is not a communicative unit until intonation
is attached to it.
2. The distinctive function of intonation manifests itself in several particular
functions, depending on the meanings differentiated. These are communicative-
distinctive, modal-distinctive, culminative (“theme-rheme”) distinctive, syntactical-
distinctive and stylistic-distinctive functions.
The communicative-distinctive function is to differentiate the communicative types
of utterance, i.e. statements, questions, exclamations, imperatives, and communicative
subtypes, e.g. within statements, - statements proper (собственно-повествование)
informing statements (сообщение), announcements, etc., within questions – first
instance questions, repeated questions, echo questions; within imperatives –
commands, requests, orders and so on.
The modal-distinctive function of intonation consists in differentiating modal
meanings of utterance, e.g. the speaker’s attitudes and emotions, for instance, a
reserved, dispassionate versus involved, interested attitude, antagonistic versus friendly
attitude and so on. This function is often defined as expressive, or emotional,
attitudinal.
3. The indemnificatory function of intonation is to provide a basis for the hearer’s
identification of the communicative and modal type of an utterance, its semantic and
syntactical structure in accordance with the situation of the discourse.
All the functions of intonation are fulfilled simultaneously and cannot be
separated one from another. They show that intonation is linguistically significant and
meaningful.
7 Thus, the linguistic character or intonation can be summarized in the following
way:
1. Intonation is significant and meaningful.
2. Intonation is systematic. It is not invented in speaking but produced according to
the system of intonation structures of a given language.
3. Intonation is a characteristic feature of each concrete language and cannot be
used in speaking another language.
Ответы на 1 тему фонетика
1 Language as “the most important means of human intercourse” exists in the
material form of speech sounds. It cannot exist without being spoken. Oral speech is
the primary process of communication by means of language. Written speech is
secondary; it represents what exists in oral speech.
2 Theoretical significance of phonetics is connected with the further development
of the problem of the synchronic study and description of the phonetic system of a
national language, the comparative analysis and description of different languages, the
study of the correspondences between them, the diachronic description of successive
changes in the phonetic system of a language or different languages.
Practical significance of phonetics is connected with teaching foreign languages.
Practical phonetics is applied in methods of speech correction, teaching deaf-mutes,
film dubbing, transliteration, radio and television.
3 Phonetics is connected with linguistic and non-linguistic sciences: acoustics,
physiology, psychology, logic, etc.
The connection of phonetics with grammar, lexicology and stylistics is exercised
first of all via orthography, which in its turn is very closely connected with phonetics.
Phonetics formulates the rules of pronunciation for separate sounds and sound
combinations.
4 The articulatory (sound-production) aspect. Speech sounds are products of
human organism. They result from the activities of the diaphragm, the lungs, the
bronchi, the trachea, the larynx with the vocal cords in it, the pharynx, the mouth
cavity with the speech organs situated in it and the nasal cavity.
The acoustic aspect. Like any other sound of nature speech sounds exist in the
form of sound waves and have the same physical properties-frequency, intensity,
duration and spectrum.
The auditory (sound-perception) aspect Every act of oral communication
presupposes the presence of at least two persons: the speaker and the hearer. The
former produces speech sounds, the latter perceives them. Thus speech sounds may
also be analysed from the point of view of perception.
The linguistic aspect. Speech sounds and prosodic features are linguistic
phenomena. They are realizations of language units-phonemes and prosodies.
Representing language units in actual speech, speech and prosodic features (pitch,
stress, temporal characteristics etc.) perform certain linguistic functions. They
constitute meaningful units-morphemes, words, word forms, utterances. All the words
of a language consist of speech sounds and have stress.
Physiological phonetics is concerned with the study of speech sounds as
physiological phenomena. It deals with our voice-producing mechanism and the way
we produce sounds, stress, intonation. It studies respiration, phonation (voice-
production), articulation and also the mental processes necessary for the mastery of a
phonetic system. Since sounds of speech are no only produced but are also perceived
by the listener and the speaker himself, physiological phonetics is also concerned with
man’s perception of sounds, pitch variation, loudness and length. In fact, physiological
phonetics can be subdivided into articulatory and auditory (perceptual) phonetics.
Acoustic phonetics is concerned with the acoustic aspect of speech sounds. It
studies speech sounds with the help of experimental (instrumental) methods. Various
kinds of apparatus are applied for analyzing sounds, stress, intonation and other
phonetic phenomena. For example, we use spectrographs to analyse the acoustic
spectra of sound, oscillographs and intonographs to analyse frequency, intensity and
duration. With the help of an electro-acoustic synthesizer synthetic speech is produced
which is a good means of testing the results of the electro-acoustic analysis.
5 Phonology, or function phonetics, is a purely linguistic branch of phonetics. It
deals with the functional aspect of speech sounds. Phonology sets out to determine the
phonetic distinctions which have a differential value in a language is as to establish the
system of phonemes and prosodemes.
6 Segmental phonology studies the way speech can be analyzed into discrete units, or segments, that constitute the basis of the sound system; and this, along with the analysis of the various phonetic features and processes which relate and differentiate these segments, is the subject-matter of this chapter.
7 Suprasegmental, also called prosodic feature, in phonetics, a speech feature such as stress, tone, or word juncture that accompanies or is added over consonants and vowels; these features are not limited to single sounds but often extend over syllables, words, or phrases
8
A good dictionary gives information on a whole range of matters. As well as telling you what a word means (by translation or otherwise), it should at least give relevant information about its grammatical status and about its pronunciation.
There are various ways of giving information about pronunciation: respelling using orthographic conventions of the learner’s language, respelling using orthographic conventions of the target language, or phonetic notation. All of these can be regarded as types of phonetic transcription, though they may well vary considerably in quality.
The easiest transcription system for the beginner is arguably a respelling using the orthographic conventions of the first language: for example, showing English pronunciation in a Korean-English bilingual dictionary by transcribing English pronunciation into han’gŭl, in a Japanese-English bilingual dictionary by transcribing it into katakana, or in a Turkish-English bilingual dictionary by writing it in Latin letters with Turkish spelling conventions. In its crudest form, this has the major drawback of treating English as if its sound system were the same as that of the learner’s first language. At the very least the transcription system will need to be made more elaborate, and therefore more complicated, by devising ways of symbolizing those sounds of English that are not found in Korean, Japanese, or Turkish respectively. Obvious examples of such sounds are the two th-sounds of English, the voiceless and voiced dental fricatives heard in thin and this respectively; or the vowel sound of the word nurse (no matter whether we take British RP or GenAm as our pronunciation model for English)
Types of transcription
For the last part of this talk I would like to consider phonetic transcription from a more general point of view. Beginners in phonetics often imagine that in transcription we can use one symbol for each “sound”, a separate phonetic symbol for each sound-type our ears or our machines can detect.
However this approach is not practical. What might appear to be “the same sound” in two different languages usually turns out, on closer inspection, to exhibit certain differences. Even within a given language, “the same sound” usually comprises a fair number of different variants associated with different positions in the word or different phonetic environments. This is what lies behind the development, over the course of the past hundred years, of the notion of the phoneme (or of more sophisticated phonological units). It also explains why all phonetic transcription depends for its interpretation upon two things: the transcribed text itself, but also the conventions for its interpretation (Abercrombie 1964: 16-24; Jones, 1956: App. A).
The phonemic principle allows us to use the same transcription symbol for all the variants of a given phoneme. We can write the same /t/ in English /tɒp, stɒp, lɒt, rɒtn, bɒtl/, despite the clear differences in aspiration and type of release. We can write the same /aʊ/ in now, louder, mouth, outing, despite differences in the duration of the diphthong. These differences, though real, are a matter of conditioned variation, determined by phonetic context. Every language has its own phoneme system and its own rules for allophonic variation.
The simplicity principle tells us to use the simplest phonetic symbol consistent with the avoidance of ambiguity. Although a few languages distinguish between dental and alveolar plosives, most do not. Although a few distinguish between aspirated and unaspirated plosives, most do not. This means that it is acceptable to use the same symbol /t/ for a range of sound-types in different languages: in English for what is typically an aspirated alveolar, in French for an unaspirated dental, in Swedish for an aspirated dental, and in Dutch for an unaspirated alveolar. The alternative is an explosion of complicated symbols and dictionary entries full of difficult diacritics.
Until we have determined the phonemic structure of a language, we can produce only an impressionistic transcription depending on our familiarity with general-phonetic sound-types. Once we have worked out the phonemics, we can use a systematic transcription, which will be simpler. This is what is appropriate for dictionaries and language textbooks. When considering connected speech, however, we need to take account of the features of connected speech, of the phrase-level and sentence-level phonology: we can produce a “phonotypical” transcription of how we expect a given sentence to sound, or alternatively an impressionistic transcription of what was actually uttered on a given occasion. Each has its uses.
9 The study of phonetics has educational and social values for almost everyone, realizing the importance of language in human communication.
As phonetics is one of the branches of linguistics it is closely connected with its other branches.
Connection with Grammar.Many Soviet linguists of the past considered phonetics to be an integral part of grammar along with morphology and syntax, and grammar reference books in those years contained a chapter in phonetics.
Connection of phonetics with morphology is revealed in the fact that establishing grammar categories, morphology often applies to phonetic rules:
1) vowel shift in formation of
a) irregular plurals: foot [fut] – [fi:t];
b) forms of irregular verbs: swim [swim] – swam [sw æ m] – swum [sw ʌ m];
2) rules, regulating the reading of flexions of some grammatical categories:
a) forms of past tense of regular verbs: played [pleid], worked [w ɜ:kt], wanted
[w ɒ ntid];
b) plural form and possessive case of nouns: tables [teiblz], books [buks], boxes
[b ɒ ksiz], boy’s [b iz], cat’s [k æ ts], Alice’s [æ lisiz].
Phonetics is also connected with syntax. This connection is revealed in the fact that any sentence being read has always a definite prosodic contour. There are some tendencies in intonation of such syntactic structures as questions of different types, direct addresses, the author’s words, enumeration, greeting, saying good –bye, parenthesis.
Connection with Lexicology,to be precise with the word stock of the language. First of all, this connection is revealed in the fact that any word cannot exist without its sound shape. Besides, with the help of vowel and consonant shift there appears the formation of different parts of speech: wise [waiz]- wisdom [wizd ə m], breath [bre θ ] – breathe [ bri:ð ].
The change in accentual structure of the word may also bring change of the part of speech: contest (n) [`k ɒ ntest]- contest (v) [k ə n`test], import (n) [`imp ə t] – import (v) – [im`p ɔ: t].
Phonetics also defines the sound form of borrowed words: their accented structure and sound composition. For example, Russian name Бородино is pronounced with the last stressed syllable and vowel sound [o] in stressed position. In English it is pronounced as [, b ɒ r ɒ ` di:n ] (Borodino), i.e. with two stresses, main and secondary, according to the rhythmical tendency of accentuation of poly syllabic English words, and with diphthong [əu] at the end of the word, as letter o in final position in English is not reduced.
Connection with Stylistics. There areStylistic Devices based on repetition of sounds (rhyme – repetition of final sounds of a syllable, alliteration – repetition of certain sounds or their combinations, assonance – repetition of vowel sounds.
ONOMATOPOEIAis a combination of speech-sounds, which aims at imitating sounds produced in nature (wind, sea , thunder ).by things (machines, tools), by people (sighing, laughter, patter of feet) and by animals.
However, the closest connection of phonetics with stylistics is observed at the intonation level. With the help of intonation means a speaker can express his/her feelings and emotions, attitude to the situation or the subject of conversation.
Phonostylisticsis a new trend in phonetics that has been lately established for the purposes of studying prosodic and sound peculiarities of texts, belonging to different genres: narrative and scientific prose, fairy tale, poetry, public and spontaneous speech and others.
Connection with Dialectology.One of the phonetic research deals withthe sound and intonation peculiarities of speech of the speakers of dialect and regional types of pronunciation in comparison with the Received Pronunciation.
Phonetics is interested in the way people’s pronunciation forms vary in different social situations. Sociophonetics,quite a new branch of Phoneticsdeals with the way language and its variations function in the speech community, social environment.
10 The methods of investigation used in phonetics vary, but there are three
principal methods: (1) the direct observation method; (2) the linguistic method; (3) the
experimental method.
1 The direct observation method comprises three important modes of phonetic
analysis: by ear, by sight and by muscular sensation. Investigation by means of this
method can be effective only if the persons employing it have been specially trained to
observe the minutest movements of their own and other people’s speech organs, and to
distinguish the slightest variations in sound quality.
2. The aim of the linguistic method of investigation of any concrete phonetic
phenomena, such as sound, stress, intonation or any other feature, is to determine in
what way all of these phonetic features are used in a language to convey a certain meaning.
3. The experimental method is based, as a rule, upon the use of special apparatus
or instruments, such as the laryngoscope, the artificial palate, the kymograph, the
magnetic tape recorder, the oscillograph, the intonograph.
фонетика ответы на 2 тему
1 The «phonemic» period, which began in 1870 and includes the twentieth
century. In this period the basic phonetic and phonological terms and concepts were
proposed, and the distinction between the actually pronounced speech sounds and the
phonemes as functional units of the language was recognized. The first linguist to
point out this distinction was I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay (1845-1929), an outstanding
Russian and Polish scholar.
2 I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay defined the phoneme as the «psychological»
equivalent of the speech sound». But he was aware of the fact that acoustic and motor
images of the speech sound do not correspond to each other. I.A. Baudouin de
Courtenay also tried to analyse phonemes on the bases of phonetic alternations in
morphemes. Besides psychological and morphological definitions of the phoneme, he
could propose the distinctive function of the speech sound in notions’ as he considered
that words may be realized in notions. I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay repeatedly stated
that semantically the utterance breaks up into sentences, sentences into significative
words, words into morphological components or morphemes and morphemes into
phonemes. As a morpheme is only divided into components of the same nature as
itself: these components - phonemes must also be significative.Many interesting ideas stating linguistic functions
of speech sounds may be found in his works. He showed the articulatory - acoustic,
morphological and semantic aspects of sound material and their relationship. I.A.
Baudouin de Courtenay's idea of the distinctive-semantic function of speech sound was
very important in relation to the modern theory of distinctive features of the phoneme,
according to which the phoneme of a given language may be divided from a system of
sequences which is formed by their constituents, i.e. by distinctive features. As the
morphemes may be divided into phonemes, likewise phonemes are divided into
distinctive features which are interpreted either in articulatory or acoustic terms. In
spite of the various approaches to the problem of establishing an inventory of the pho-
nemes in a given language, which should be possible on the basis of breaking up
utterances or words into the smallest segments or by the method of commutation test,
counting minimal pairs of words like pill - bill, till - mill, kill - hill etc. The
fundamental discussion on the problems of phonemic analysis is still going on among
phonemicists.
3 L.V. Shcherba also indicated three aspects of speech sounds: biological
(physiological), physical and linguistic (social), of which he paid special attention to
the last aspect. In speech communication physiologically and physically different
articulations (for example [a]) may be generalized by one meaning. Such a generalized
unit is called a phoneme. Thus, L.V. Shcherba underlined the concrete, generalized
and functional aspects of the phoneme. He explained that each phoneme may be
distinguished from all other phonemes by its features, while all the phonemes of a
given languages form a unit system of oppositions in which each phoneme is defined
by its oppositions against another separate phoneme or phoneme groups.
4 The representatives of the Moscow phonological school based their definition of
a phoneme on the concept of the morpheme. A.A. Reformatsky gave the following
definition of the phoneme: «Phonemes are minimal units of the sound structure of a
language, serving to form and differentiate meaningful units: morphemes and words».
Phonemes are meaningless units of a language but they are capable of distinguishing
meaningful units as their sequences may form morphemes and words. For example, pit
- lit, but - bet etc.
5 It must be kept in mind that the St. Petersburg Phonological School’s definition
of a phoneme is based on words and word forms, i.e. the phoneme is the smallest unit
capable of differentiating words and word forms. This phonemic concept is applied to
the description of English phonemes by G.P. Torsuyev, V.A.Vassilyev, O. I. Dicku-
shina and V.N. Vitomskaya.
6 Sounds participate in phonological oppositions only by means of their
phonologically relevant properties. Another definition of phoneme given by N.S.
Trubetzkoy is «the sum phonologically relevant properties of a sound (laut-gebilde)».
Phonemes are functional sounds of a language while speech sounds are the
realizations or manifestations of phonemes in speech. This distinction between
language and speech was borrowed by N.S. Trubetzkoy from F. de Saussure’s and K.
Bu hler’s works. N.S. Trubetzkoy insisted on defining a phoneme solely on the basis on
its function in the system of a language.